LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



@|a|t, iojtgrigll !f n, 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FAMILIAR 

TALKS ON LANGUAGE. 

A Special Work on Practical & Theoretical 

Grammar, carefully adapted to a Shorter 

Course of Private Study. 

—BY— 

G. H, Bell, 

Author of ^^ Natural Method in English,'' '' Gnide to Correct 
Lanmiao-e,'" '■^ Piinctuatioii Chart'' etc.. etc 



POCKET EDITION. 






'^ 



BATTLE CREEK, - ^ MICHIGAN. 

1885. 






Entered according- to Act of Congress, in tHe year i8S^, by 

G. H. Bell, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washinton. 



D. OMAR BELL, Printer, 

BATTLE CREEK, MICH. 



PREFACE. 

It has been often remarked i:hat a preface is never 
read, and is therefore a useless encumbrance to a 
book. But there are special reasons why this little 
volume should have a preface, — reasons that make it 
the duty of the author to write one. 

The lessons were begun with no other view in 
mind than to afford proper instructions and exercises 
for those who are taking lessons bv correspondence. 
It soon became evident, however, that there was to be 
a demand for these lessons in oral teaching. Since 
it was not the intention at first to inake a bound 
volume, there was not all that preparation made which 
is necessary before beginning a book, in order to pre- 
vent errors and- irregularities. As a consequence, 
many imperfections will be noticed. The author's 
apology for presenting tlie book in this form is in the 
fact that there are such pressing calls for it. Indeed, 
it has been hard to resist the demands for separate 
portions, and even single signatures; insomuch that 
more* than one hundred copies of the work have been 
already spoiled by yielding to the requests of friends, 
who could not wait for the book to be completed ; 
for it has been nearlv a vear since the printing was 
begun upon it. 

The author hopes to be able during the coming 



ii Preface. 

year to present the work in a more perfect form and 
in larger type. 

The familiar style, as well as the nun:ierous ques- 
tions and exercises, cannot fail to make this book 
especially valuable for private study. Those who use 
the work will iind it eminently practical, especially 
in the departmient of punctuation. The models for 
the analysis of sentences are so constructed that the 
pupil is obliged to explain the punctuation of every 
sentence he analyzes. In this way, he is made familiar 
with the pvmctuation of all kinds of sentences that 
are given in the grammar, and learns to base his 
pointing of a sentence upon the grammatical con- 
struction, and upon the logical relation of thoughts. 

Such a course of education is not only profitable 
in its practical results, but it also affords a discipline 
of mind that is of inestimable value. 

Insignificant as it may appear, this little book 
embraces a thorough treatment of all the topics found 
in the author's larger work; the diminished size being 
secured by using small type, condensing the matter, 
and einploying fewer illustrations and examples. 

Battle Creek, Mick. G. H. B. 



CONTENTS. 



TALK I. (pp. I-IO.j Pasre. 

Thought and its Demand?; i 

Parts of Speech 2 

Common and Proper Nouns 2 

Initial Letters 3 

Forming- Phu'als 4 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 1-5 • (l"*!^- S'^o) 

TALK IL (pp. 11-18.) 

Gender of Xouns 11 

Sentences 12 

Adjectives 12 

Pronouns 13 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 6-10 (14- iS) 

TALK in. (pp. 19-22.) 

Parsing 19 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 11-15 ■ • (20-22) 

TALK IV. (pp. 23-26.) 

Some Things About Phrases 23 

The Object of a Verb 24 

The Forms (Cases) of the Xoun and Pronoun 24 

Models for Analysis 23, 26 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 16-20 . . . . (25-26) 

TALK V. (pp. 27-30.) 

Different Uses of Possessive Nouns 27 

Kindred, Authorship, etc 27 

Phrases Used in place of Possessive Nouns 2S 

Models for Analysis and Parsing 28, 29 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 21-25 ■ • (2S-30) 

TALK VI. (pp. 31-37.) 

Verbs, Regular and Irregular 31 

The Copula 31 

The Intransitive Verb 32 

(iii) 



iv Contents. Pa«j-e. 

The Transitive Verb . . . . ^^ 

Voice . . 34 

Examples 34 

Questions and Requirements. — Lessons 26-30 .. .. (,^6-37) 

TALK VII (pp. 38-44.) 

Questions and Commands .... .... .... .... 3S 

Person and Number of the Verb .... 3S 

Complete Parsing- of the Verb .... .... .... 40 

Models for Parsing- the Verb .... .... .... 41 5 42 

General Examples .... .... .... .... .... 42 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 31-35 (42-44) 

TALK VIII. (pp. 45-50.) 

The Noun in Predicate 45 

Models for Analysis and Parsing .... .. 46, 47 

General Examples .... .... .... .... .... . . 47 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 36-40 .... (4S-50I 

TALK IX. (pp. si-57.) 

Participles .... .... .... 51 

General Examples .... .... .... .... .... . . 53 

Participial Phrases 54 

Models for Analysis .... .... .. 54 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 41-45 ....' .. (55-57) 

TALK X. (pp. 58-64.) 

Adjective Elements .... .... .... .... 5S 

Punctuation of Adjective Elements 59 

Models for Analysis .... 60-61 

General Examples .... .... .... .... 62 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 46-50 .... (6^, 64) 

TALK XI. (pp. 65-69.) 

Active and Passive Participles 65 

Models for Parsing .... .... .... 66 

General Examples .... .... .... .... .... 66 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 51-55 .... (67-69) 

TALK XII. (pp. 70-75.) 

Coordinate Elements .... .... .... .... .... 70 

The Couplet and Series 70 

Models for Analysis and Parsing ..^, 71, 72 

General Examples 73 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 56-60 (74, 75) 

TALK XIII. (pp. 76-84.) 

Recapitulation .... .... .... 76 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 61-65 (S2-S4) 

TALK XIV. (pp. 85-90.) 

Ellipsis of the Noun S5 

Models for Parsing .... S5 



V Contexts. 

Pag-e. 

Nouns Independent b}- Address 85 

Models for Parsing: 86 

Adverbial Phrase Without a Preposition 87 

Comparison Introduced by Like 87 

lUustrative Examples 87 

Models for Parsing 88 

General Examples .... 83 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 66-70 (Sy-90) 

TALK XV. (pp. 91-97.) 

Clauses . . , . ' 91 

Examples .... 91 

Adverbial Clau.ses 92 

Models for Analysis and Parsing- 92-94 

General Examples 94 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 71-75 (95"97) 

TALK XVL (pp. 98-102.) 

Adjective Clauses .... 98 

Models for Analysis and Parsing .... 99 

General Examples .... 100 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 76- So .... (loi, 102) 

TALK XVn. (pp. 103-108.) 

Punctuation Reviewed ...... 103 

Illustrative Examples .... 105 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons S1-S5 (107, loS) 

TALK XVIIL (pp. 109-114.) 

Verbal Xouns .... 1Q9 

Models for Parsing .... 1 10, 1 1 1 

General Examples 112 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons S6-90 .. .. (113, 114) 

TALK XIX (pp. 115-120.) 

Additional Tenses 115 

Models for Parsing .... 117 

General Examples .... 117 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 91-95 (118-120) 



VI Contents. 

TALK XX. (pp. 121-126.J 

Modes 121 

Models for Parsing- 122 

General Kxamples 123 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 96-100 .. .. (124-126) 

TALK XXI (pp. 127-133.) 

The Infinitive Mode 127 

Models for Parsing- 127 

The Subjunctive Mode 12S 

Models for Analysis and Parsing- .... .... 130 

The Perfect Participle .... .... .... .... . . 130 

Models for Parsing- .... .... .... .... .... 130 

General Examples .... .... .... .... .... .. 131 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 101-105 .. .. (131-133) 

TALK XXIL (pp. 134-140.) 

The Prog-ressive Form .... .... .... .... 134 

The Passive Form .... .... .... .... .... 134 

Tense Forms of To Be .... .... .... .... 135 

The Emphatic Form .... .... .... .... .... 136 

The Solemn Style .... ' 136 

Models for Parsing .... .... 137 

Generar Examples 13S 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 106-110 .. .. (139, 140) 

TALK XXin. (pp. 141-153.) 

Description of the Tense-Forms 141 

Condensed Conjug-ation of the Verb 143 

List of Irregular Verbs .... .... 145 

Diagram of Tense Forms and Participles. — Between pp. 145, 146 
Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 111-115 (i.'>i-iS3) 

TALK XXIV. (pp. 154-159.) 

The Phrase Absolute .... .... .... .... 154 

Models for Analysis and Parsing 154, 155 

The Infinitive in the Predicate 155 

Ordinarv Phrase in the Predicate .... .... .... l<6 



Contents. ^ ^^^ 

Pag-e. 

Models for Anal^^sis and Parsing- 156 

The V^erbs, Sit, Set, Lie, and Lay 156 

General Examples 157 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 116- 120 (158,159) 

TALK XXV. (pp. 160-164.) 

Adjective Clauses Resumed 160 

Models for Anal^'sis and Parsing 160 

Relative Pronoun used also as an Adjective 161 

Models for Analysis and Parsing 161, 162 

Relative Pronoun Representing a Noun L^nderstood 162 

General Examples 163 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 121 -125 (163,164) 

TALK XXVL (pp. 165-172.) 

Pronouns Used in Asking Questions 165 

Models for Parsing 165 

Clauses in the Office of Nouns 166 

Substantive Clause Introduced by Who 166 

Conjunctive Adverbs ; 167 

Models for Analysis of Substantive Clauses 15S, 169 

General Examples 169 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 126-130 (170-172) 

TALK XXVIL (pp. 173-181.) 

Correlative Words and Clauses i73" ^75 

Associated Conjunctions 175 

Models for Parsing i75- ^77 

General Examples 17S 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 131-135 (178-1S1) 

TALK XXVIIL (pp. 182-187.) 

Copulative Verbs 182 

Models for Anahj^sis and Parsing 1S3-185 

General Examples 185 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 136-140 (186, 1S7) 



viii Contents. ^ 

Jragfe. 

TALK XXIX. (pp. 188-195.) 

The Double Object 18S 

Models for Analysis and Parsing 189- 191 

Copulative Verbs in the Passive Voice. (Models for 

Analysis and Parsing) 191 - 193 

General Examples 193 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 140-145 (1945 I95) 

TALK XXX. (pp. 196-202.) 

Emotional Expressions 196 

Models for Analysis and Parsing 197 

Grammatical Errors, and Models for CoiTecting 19S, 199 

General Examples 199-201 

Questions and Exercises. — Lessons 146-150 (201, 202) 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE. _No. I. 

THOUGHT AND ITS DEMANDS. 



Nothing affords a grander field of study than languag-e ; 
and what needs to be understood better than one's native tongue? 
Language is the expression of the mind, — that wonderful connect- 
ing link between earth and heaven — between man and the Infinite. 
Through language we become acquainted with the thoughts of 
our fellow-men ; thiough language we learn the wisdom of past 
ages ; and through language the will of Heaven, and the way of 
eternal life, are made known. 

In order to make the study of language interesting, we must 
study the thought, as well as the expression of it. The want of 
this has made grammar a dry study, and alwaj^s will make it so, 
no matter what ingenious methods may be devised to remedy the 
evil. The onh^ true way is to first study the thought, and it^ 
demands o7i la?igiiage, for expression ,' then ^ve become interested, 
and even delighted, in seeing ho\v language meets those demands. 
I>et us briefly apply this principle, in a general \vay. Our de- 
mands on language, from infancy up, h ive grown so gradually that 
we cannot trace them ; but \ve \vill suppose that an accident, or 
some severe sickness, has deprived us of all previous knowledge. 
As we look anew upon nature, our attention is attracted by count- 
less objects, for all of which we must have na7nes, before we can 
talk about them. In these objects Ave observe various conditions 
and qualities. Now when we wish to show that these proper- 
ties exist in a thing, we must add to its name, certain words that 
denote these properties ; that is, quality words. Just so it is 
that to talk of actions we must have action vjords ,' and when 
we wish to show the time, place, or manner, of an action, we 
must have "vvords for that purpose. We also need ^vords to 
show the relation of ideas to one another. 

Thus it is that language is made to serve our needs ; and 
instead of mourning because it has so many forms, and requires 
so much" study, ^ve ought to be thankful that it is so copious as 
to furnish expressions for every variety of thought. 



2 Talks on Language. — No. i. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The wants referred to above give rise to the different, 
classes of words called Parts of Speech. 

The demand for names is met b}' Xoims ; the words added 
to nouns to show quality or condition, are called Qualifying Ad- 
jetctives ; those which point out, or tell how many, are Limiting Ad- 
jectives ; action words are Verbs and Participles, and the words 
added to them to tell how^ why, where^ or zvken, are Adverbs. The 
words that show the relation of thoughts and things to one another 
are Conjunctions and Prepositions. The Pronouns are a class of 
words used to allude to the speaker, to some one spoken to, or to 
some person or thing that has already been named. A pronoun 
that shows the relation of a thought to something that has been 
named, is called a Relative Pronoun ; and a few that are used in 
asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns. Words that 
- show emotion, but no thought, are Interjections. 

It is not our present purpose to give critical definititions of 
the parts of speech, or to introduce a drill for distinguishing them ; 
but merely to show that instead of being arbitrary and unneces- 
sary, they come in answer to the imperative demands of thought ; 
they come, not as oppressors and task-masters, but as friends 
and helpers. 

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 

In looking about us, we see classes of persons and things 
that are alike in some important feature, while in many respects 
they are individually different. In this ^vay people are divided 

into classes, such as farmet's^ cai'penters, niercha7its, teachers, 
hoys, girls, men, vjomen, etc. 

Since these names apply in common to all in the class, they 

are called "Common Xouns." Boy, for instance, may name 

any one of that class, and so it is common in its application. 

Boys may name any two or more of the class, or the entire class. 

On the contrary, Nathan is a name that does not belong to 



Talks on Language. — No. i. 3 

boys in common ; it is the name of just one of a class ; it is 
propei'ly his name, because it belongs to him and to no one else. 
It is therefore called a Propei' Noun. City is a common noun, 
because it is applied, *in common, to all things of the kind ; while 
Boston^ Troy, Chicago, and Charleston are jjroper nouns, since 
they are the names of particular cities, and do not appU' to all 
cities. 

INITIAL LETTERS. 

It is necessary to notice which nouns are proper, and which 
are common, because a proper noun always ought to begin w^ith 
a capital letter, while a common noun, as a rule, should begin 
■with a small letter. 

Some common nouns should kave the capital initial, such as 
the names of the ynonths, the names of the days of the 7veek, the 
names of tribes, races, political parties, etc. 

The names of the seasons, however, should begin, each with 
a small letter, unless the^^ are represented as persons. 

Proper names often consist of two or more v/ords. In such 
cases all the chief words should begin with a capifcil, but the 
unimportant words, such as "of" and "the" should begin with 
a small letter. The follo^ving examples will show what the 
custom is "^vith reference to such words: — 

Casco Bay ; West India Islands ; Captain John Smith ; Gulf of 
Mexico ; Lake of the Woods ; Duke of York ; New South AVales. 

When such words as "lake," "baj^," "captain," "island," 
"south," "new," etc., are not used as a part of a proper name, 
they usually begin with a small letter. 

The first word of every line of poetry, the first ^vord of every 
sentence, and the first word of every group or expression that is 
separately paragraphed or numbered, should also begin with a 
capital letter. 



4 Talks on Language. — No. i. 

FORMING PLURALS. 

Sometimes we want a noun to name just one of a class, and 
sometimes we want it to name more than one. In its simplest 

form it names just one thing-, and is then said to be in the sin- 
gular number. 

When we wish it to name more than one thing, we change 
its form a little, usually by adding "s," and then it is said to be 
in the plural number. P"or example, "bird" names one thing 
of the kind, and is in the singular number: while "birds" names 
more than one, and is in the plural number. 

Although we commonly add "s" to form the plural, we can- 
not always do so; for when the singular noun ends in " s," we 
can not add another "s" without making a new syllable. Just 
so it is with words that end in the sound of " s," or in any 
sound that puts the tongue in nearly the same position that it is 
in while sounding "s." 

Such words as "conscience," "piece," "race," etc., end in the 
sound of "s ;" and so do all words that end in the letter "x ;" 
for "x" sounds the same as "ks." "Barge," "charge," and 

other such words, end in the sound of " j ; " while such words as 
"maze" end in the soimd of "z, " the final "e" being silent. 
In all such cases we add the syllable "es" to form the plural. 
Words ending in the sound of " sh " or "ch" form their plural 
in the same way ; for these sounds are made with the tongue in 
nearly the same position as it takes in forming the sound of "s." 
Remember that it is not the last letter, but the last sound of the 
word that has to be noticed when we would tell whether "s" or 
" es " is to be added in forming the plural. 

Nouns ending in "o" and "y" are sometimes a little peculiar 
in forming their plural. When the next leiter before the final 
"o" is a vowel, we form the plural by adding "s;" but when 
the next letter before the "o" is a consonant, we add "es," 
without increasing the number of syllables. So the plural of 

"folio" is "folios," while the plural of "cargo" is "cargoes,'* 



Talks ox Language. — No, i. 5 

"Words borrowed from other lang-uag-es do not add " es " to 
form the plural, even when the final "o" has a consonant just 
before it, unless they have been used in our language a long- time. 
For instance, the plural of "canto" is generally spelled "cantos," 
instead of "cantoes." Nouns ending in "u" generally follow 
the same rule as those ending in "o." 

Xouns ending in "y" form their plural by adding "s;" but 
whenever the next letter before the final "y" is a consonant, the 
"3'-" is changed to "ie" before adding the "s." So the plural 
of "valley" is "valleys," while the plural of "'cherry-" is "cher- 
ries." Nouns ending in "f" generally form their plural by 
adding "s," though a few of them change "f " to " ve " before 
adding the " s. These words, however, are so common that there 
is very little danger of making a mistake in forming their plural. 
The ^vords "life," "knife," "wife," etc., change "f " to "v" in 
forming their plural. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

LESSON I. 

1. What m.ay be said of language as a field of thought? 

2. What needs to be understood better than one's native tongue ? 

3. Of what is language the expression? 

4. How may the mind be regarded? 

5. With what does language make us acquainted? 

6. What must we do in order to make the stud}- of language 
interesting? 

7. What has resulted from the want of such study? 

8. What is the onlv true ^vay of studving the language? 

9. What is the result of such a course of study? 
ID. What helps to awaken this interest? 

11. Wh3^ can we not look back, and trace the demands of 
thought as they have shown themselves in our own experience? 

12. If we were deprived of all knowledge of words, what would 
we first need, before we could talk of the things about us? 



6 Talks on Language. — No. i. 

13. In noticing- objects, what would we discover? 

14. For what would these make a demand? 

15. What other class of words would we need in order to tell 
what things do, and what is done to them? 

16. For what other purposes would words be needed ? 

17. What is language thus made to do? 

iS. Instead of mourning because our language has so many- 
forms, and requires so much stvidy, how ought we to feel? 

LESSON 2. 

1. What demands of thought have been referred to? 

2. To what do these \vants give rise? 

3. What meets the demand for names? 

4. What do we call words that are added to nouns to tell the 
quality or condition of things ? 

5. AVhat do we call words that are added to tell which ones, 
or kovj many F 

6. What names are given to words that denote action? 

7. What do we call words that are added to verbs, participles, 
etc., to tell where, vjhen, zvhy, or hovj f 

8. W^hat names are g-iven to words that show the relation of 
thoughts and things to one another? 

9. What are pronouns used for? 

10. What do we call a pronoun that shows the relation of a 
thought to something that has been named before? 

11. How do interrog-ative pronouns differ from other pronouns? 

12. W^hat do we call ^vords that show emotion but no thought ? 

13. What is it not our present purpose to do? 

14. What then is our object of introducing- these parts of speech ? 

15. AVrite t^venty lines or more, describing- your home ; then 
select the words that belong- to the different parts of speech, put- 
ting all the nouns in one column, all the adjectives in another, etc. 



Talks on Language.— Xo. i. 7 

LESSON'S. 

1. In looking- about us, what do we observe with reference to 
the similarity of things? 

2. What does this lead us to do ? — It leads us to gi'oiip persons 
and things into classes. 

3. What classes of persons can you name? 

4. AVhat classes of things? 

5. What are such names called? Why? 

6. What kind of noun is *'boy"? Why? 

7. Why is "boys" a common noun? 

8. What kind of noun is "Nathan"? Why? 
Q. What kind of noun is " citv "? AVhy? 

10. AVhat kind of nouns are "Troy," "Utica," "Boston," 
"Detroit," etc. 

11. Why are such nouns called proper? 

12. Why is it necessary to notice which nouns are proper, and 
Avhich are common? 

13. What common nouns have the capital initial? 

14. With what kind of letter should the names of the seasons 
begin ? 

15. When a proper name consists of t^vo or more words, which 
of its words should begin "svith a capital letter? 

16. When such words as " of " and " the " are a part of a proper 
name, how should they begin? 

17. Ho\v should such words as "captain," "island," "lake," 
"ncAv," etc., begin, Avhen they are not used as a part of a proper 
noun ? 

18. How should the first word of every separate sentence begin ? 

19. AVhat other "first words" should have a capital initial? 

20. Which of the following \vords should begin with a capital, 
and ^vhy? 

Table, december, buffalo city, book, Cleveland, europe, a lord 
and a lady, peru, ocean, england, paris, cape of good hope, mount 
holyoke, methodists, lake Constance, isthmus of darien. 



8 Talks on Language. — No. i. 

21. Write the following sentences correctly : — 
(a.) I shall sail on thursda5'-, October fifteenth. 
^b.) The republicans were defeated by the democrats. 
(c.) The methodists and baptists will hold a union camp- 
meeting- sometime during the autumn. 

LESSON 4. 

1. "When is a noun said to be in the singular number? 

2. When is it in the plural number? 

3. How do we make a noun denote more than one of a class? 

4. Give examples. 

5. Can we always form the plural by adding "s" to a noun 
in the singular number? 

6. How do we have to form the plural when the singular 
noun ends in "s"? 

7. How is it when the singular noun ends in the sound oi '* s " ? 

8. In what other instances do we have to add the syllable "es '* 
to form the plural ? 

9. What is the last sound in such words as "piece," "place,'* 
etc. ? 

10. What is the last sound in such words as "forge," and 
""dirge"? 

11. What is the last sound in "conscience," "maze," and 
" prize"? 

12. What do we have to notice when we want to tell whether 
"s" or "es" is to be added to form the plural? 

13. Why do we have to give some special attention to nouns 
that end in "o" or "y"? 

14. When do we have to add "es" to form the plural of a 
noun ending in *'o"? 

15. How do we form the plural of nouns that end in "y"? 

16. When should " y " be changed to " ie " before adding the "s" ? 

17. Give ten examples of nouns that end in "o," and form their 
plural by adding "es." 



Talks on Language.— No. i. 9 

iS. Give t^vo that form their pkiral b}- adding "s." 

19. Give seven nouns that change "y" to "ie" before adding 
*' s." 

20. How do nouns ending in "f '' form their plural? 

LESSON^'. 

1. What need have we for nouns? For pronouns ? For 
qualifying adjectives f For limiting adjectires ? 

2. What need have we for verbs and participles ? For ad- 
verbs f 

3. Of what use are conjunctions and prepositions ? Interjec- 
tions F 

4. What nouns are called comm.on? Which are called proper? 
Give examples. 

5. Why is it necessary to distinguish coiiimon nouns from 
proper nouns? 

6. AVhat proper nouns should have the capital initial ? 

7. What common nouns should have the capital initial? 

S. Vv'hen is a noun in the singular number? Vv'hen in the 
plural ? 

9. Ho^v is the plural of nouns coinm.onh" formied ? 

10. AVhen do we have to add the syllable " es " ? 

11. AVhen do we have to change the final "'3- " to " ie " before 
adding "s "? 

12. AVrite the following sentences correctlv: — 

(a.) The west india islands lie not far from florida, the gulf 
of m^exico, and the Caribbean sea. 

{b.) We had a visit from captain jones, who has sailed 
around the cape of good hope. 

{c.) He told us of a presbyter ian minister who has been 
preaching to the malays on one of the islands of the Indian ocean. 

{d.) The spring election is held on the first monday of 
april. 

{e.) There were two generals, four colonels, and seven cap- 
tains in the company who visited the island to-dav. 



lo Talks on I>anguage. — No. i. 

(/.) Who does not admire the beauties of nature, among 
green valHes and soft skies? 

(^.) Three voUies were fired at the chimnies. 

{k.) Three negros, three albinoes, and six mulattos, were 
stowed away among the ship's cargos. 

(/.) Five cameoes were found among the old folioes in the 
great cup -board. 




TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. q. 

GENDER OF NOUNS. 



Such proper names as 'John, Luther, Andrew, Philip, etc., 
are always given to persons of the male sex ; that is, to men and 
boys ; while such names as Hele?:, Jane, and Lzicy are alwa^^s 
given to persons of the female sex. So, too, such common nouns 
as ma7i, boy, lion, tiger, etc., are applied to the male sex ; while 
such ones as vjoman, girl, Iio7iess, tigress, etc., are applied to 
the female sex. 

Names of males are said to be in the masculilie o'encler 
names of females are said to be in the feminine gender, and 
names of things that have no sex are said to be in the neuter 
gender. Some nouns, such 2i^ friend, parent, teacher, etc., are 
applied to both sexes alike. So in speaking of them we say they 
do not destinguish sex. 

Sometimes the name of the male is entirely different from that 
of the female; as in ox, covj ; steer, heifer; ram, evje. Some- 
times there is a slight resemblance in the words ; as in lord, 
lady ; man, woman ; gajider, goose. In other instances the 
words simply have different endings ; as, prince, priiicess ; tiger, 
tigress, czar, czarina. Sometimes a short word is prefixed to the 
name to distmguish the sex ; as in man-servant, xuoman-serva7it ; 
he -goat, she-goat / cock- sparrow, hen-sparrow. 

The words horse and dog are commonly applied to either or 
both sexes ; but whenever it becomes necessary to distinguish 
the sex, we have different words for the female. It is the same 
with poet, and some other words. Sometimes, however, we use 
the feminine form, instead of the masculine, for both sexes. For 
example, we speak of ducks or geese without regard to sex ; but 
when it is necessary to show which sex is meant, we use another 
word to denote the male. 

It is not generally necessary to notice the sex of young child- 
ren, or of the lower animals. 



Talks on Language. — No. 2. 12 

SENTENCES. 

It has been noticed that, in order to talk of things, ^ve must 
have names for them. But after a thing is named, we need other 
words before we can tell an3rthing about it. When I say, "flow- 
ers are beautiful," the word Jlowers names the things I wish to 
talk about, and the words a7'e beautiful tell something about them ; 
they tell a quality of the flowers. If you say *' Snow is falling," 
you use the word snow to name the thing you intend to talk about, 
and the words is falling to tell what the snow is doing. If I > 
say "John is sick," I name a person, and state a fact concerning 
him. Now a group of words that states a fact concerning some- 
ihing is a sentence. 

In the sentence, "Monkeys are mischievous," a fact is stated 
concerning monkeys, so the word monkeys is called the STlbjectj 
the words are mischierous state a fact concerning the monkeys, 
so they are called the predicate. Every sentence must have 
a subject and a predicate ; the first to name the thing we want 
to speak of, and the second to make some statement about that 
thing. 

Sometimes a sentence asks a question, and sometimes it gives 
a command. 

Examples. — Are apples wholesome? Keep quiet. Be 

faithful. 

The predicate in the first of these examples is are wholesome^ 
and the subject in the last two is understood. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are words that are added to nouns. Those that 
tell the quality, kind, or condition, are called Qualifying Adjectives ; 
while those that tell which ones, or what ones, are called Limit- 
ing Adjectives. 

When we wish to state positively that a thing has a certain 
quality, or is in a certain condition, we put the adjective in the 
predicate as in the following examples : — 

I. Iron is strong. 2. Lead is heavy. 



One 


of 


is u 


sed 


" an ' 


' is 


The' 


' is 



Talks on Language. — Xo. 2. 13 

3. Fertile fields are beautiful. 4- Forest trees are grand. 

5. Abraham was faithful. ^- Good books are valuable. 

Limiting adjectives, with a few exceptions, are never used in 
the predicate. 

"This," "that," "these," "those," and a few- more, are used 
to tell vjhich 07ies or vjkat ones are meant. "Few-," "several," 
"some," "manv," etc., are used to tell itidefinitely hozu many, 
but do not shoW' any precise number. Such words as "five," 
"seven," "ten," etc., tell the exact 7mmhe7\ 

Two of the limiting- adjectives are called Articles. 
them is "a" or "an;" and the other is "the." "A" 
before a \vord beginning ^vith a consonant sound, and 
used before a ^vord beginning ^vith a vow-el sound. " 
called a Definite Article, because it shows that some particular 
one is meant; w-hile "a" or "an" is called the Indefinite Ar- 
ticle, because it does not show- that any definite one is meant. 

The qualifving adjectives are often used to show- zvhat or 
which ones are meant, but they do it by denoting some quality ; 
while the limiting adjectives point out in some other w-ay. 

PRONOUNS. 

"When a person speaks of himself, he does not use his ow-n 
name; but puts the w-ord "I" for subject; as, "/am w-riting." 
In speaking to a person, w-e use the w-ord "you " for subject instead 
of the person's name; as, ^^ Ton are welcome." If I w-ish to 

speak of m^-self and some one else w-ho is w-ith me, I use "w-e" 
for subject; as, "TF^ are going." In speaking of a man who 
has been already named, we may use "he" for subject in place 
of the man's name; as, "ZT^ is coming." In sj)eaking of a 
^voman, w-e may use "she" in place of her name ; and in speak- 
ing of a thing that has no sex, w-e ma}- use "it;" as, ''She is 
w-eary," " // is heav3\" 

These words that take the place of nouns, are called pronouns, 
and are ver}- convenient. There are other pronouns besides those 
just mentioned, but w-e will not notice them at present. 



14 Talks on Language. — No. 2. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

LESSON 6. 

1. Give names that are always applied to persons of the male 
sex. 

2. Give some that are alwa5^s applied to the female sex. 

3. Give common nouns that are always applied to the male sex. 

4. Give common nouns that are always applied to the female 
sex. 

5. Give names of thing's that have no sex, 

6. In \vhat gender are names of males? "Names of female.?? 
Names of things that have no sex? 

7. Give nouns that apply to both sexes alike. 

8. What do we say in speaking of the gender of such nouns ? 

9. Give examples in which the name of the male is entirely 
different from that of the female. 

10. Give examples in which there is a slight resemblance be- 
tween the masculine and the feminine noun. 

11. Give examples in which the sex is shown by a different 
ending of the noun. 

12. Give examples in which the sex is distmguished by prefix- 
ing a short word to the noun. 

13. What may be said of such words as "dog," "horse," etc.? 

14. What of the word "poet"? 

15. What feminine nouns are commonly used to name either 
sex, or both sexes? 

16. Write the following sentences correctly : — 

{a.) The lost ponys were found in the vallies, feeding on 
the turnips and potatos. 

{b.) Three vollies were fired at the Enemys, and the echos 
\vent ringing through the forests. 

{c.) Uncle John told a tale of elfs that ride by night. 

id.) ^ Her Parents dwelt beside a glen. 

17. What nouns in these sentences are in the masculine gender ? 
What ones are in the feminine gender ? What ones are neuter ? 

18. Which of these sentences do not distinguish sex ? 



Talks on Language. — No. 2. 15 

LESSON 7. 

1. What do ^ve need first, in order to talk of thing-s? 

2. When we have named a thing-, what do we next need? 

3. In the sentence, "Flowers are beautiful," what word names 
the things we wish to talk about? 

4. ^Vhat words tell something about the flowers? 

5. In the sentence, "Snow is falling," for ^vhat do Ave use the 
word S7WVJ ? 

6. For what do we use is falling ? 

7. AVhat do I do when I say, "John is sick" ? 

8. AVhat is a group of words called that states a fact concern- 
ing something? 

9. ^Vhat else may a sentence do? 

10. Give examples. 

11. What must every sentence have? 

12. For what does ever^^ sentence need a subject? 

13. For what does it need a predicate? 

14. ^Vhat is the subject, and what is the predicate, in each of 
the sentences above? 

15. Point out the subjects and predicates in the following senten- 
ces, and tell what each does : — 

(«.) Mountains are grand. (5.) Summer is pleasant, 

(r.) Forests are cool. (t/.) Patience is powerful. 

(^.) Pebbles are smooth. (/.) AVater is clear. 

(^.) Great is Diana. (/^.) Birds were singing. 

INIoDEi.. — In the first sentence, mountains is the subject ; it 
names the things that we wish to talk about. Are grand is the 
predicate ; it states a fact concerning the mountains. 

16. Which of the following groups of Avords are not sentences ? 

(«.) Clouds are gathering. (^.) Happy children. 

(c.) On a fine afternoon. {d.) The ocean is wide. 

(<?.) A flock of noisy blackbirds. (/.) Fountains are flowing. 



i6 Talks on Language. — No. 2 

LESSON 8. 

1. What are adjectives? 

2. Which are called qualifying? 

3. W^hich are called limiting? 

4. When do we put the adjectives in the predicate? 

5. Are limiting adjectives used in the predicate? 

6. Which of the limiting adjectives are used to tell what ones 
or which ones are meant? 

7. Which are used to tell indefinitely how many? 

8. What ones tell the exact number? 

9. How many of the limiting adjectives are called articles? 

10. What are they? 

11. When is a used in preference to an't 

12. When is an used m preference to a? 

13. Why is the called a definite article? 

14. Why is a or an called an indefinite article. 

15. Do the qualifying adjectives ever show what ones or which 
ones are meant? 

16. How do they do this? 

17. Do limiting adjectives point out things in the same way? 

18. Write the following sentences, dra\ving one line under the 
subject and two under the predicate. Select the adjectives and 
the nouns, writing the proper nouns in the first colum, the common 
nouns in the second, the qualifying adjectives in the third, and the 
limiting adjectives in the fourth : — 

(rt.) A thick mist is falling. (^.) The castle is somber, 
(c.) An owl is hooting. (</.) One schooner was wrecked. 

ie?) Those men were rescued. (/.) Few thrifty towns were seen. 
(^.) Great care is needed. (/^.) Five lives were lost. 
(/.) This tomb -stone is moss-grown. 
(/.) Many white tents w^ere pitched. 

LESSON g. 
I. In speaking of 5'ourself, what would you put for the sub- 
ject of the sentence, in place of your own name? Give an ex- 
ample. 



Talks ox Laxguage, — No. 2. 17 

2. When we speak to a person, ^^ hat do we put for subject, 

in place of his name? 

,3. When I wish to speak of myself and those Vvho are with 

me, what must I use for subject? 

4. In speaking of a man who has ah'eadybeen named, what may 
we use for subject, in place of his name? 

5. ^Vhat ma^- we use for subject in place of a woman's name 
who has already been mentioned? 

6. WTiat may be used as subject in place of the name of a 
thing that has no sex? 

7. AVhat do we call these words that take the place of nouns? 

8. Which of these -pronouns are said to be in the first person? 

9. Why are they in the first person? 

10. Which one is in the second person? Why? 

11. AVhich ones are in the third person? AVhy ? 

12. "What pronoun do we use for subject in the third person, 
plural number? 

13. What do we use for subject in the first person, plural niim- 
ber? 

14. AVhat do ^ve use for subject in the second person, plural 
number? 

15. What in the third person, singular number? 

16. Write the follo^ving sentences ; draAv a single line under 
ever}' subject, and a double line under every predicate ; put a small 
a over every limiting adjective, a capital A over every qualifying 
adjective, and / over every pronoun : — 

(<7.) A merry compan^^ was passing. {b.) Fragrant wild roses. 
{c.) A heavy- sea was breaking. {d.) Great trees were cut. 

(^.)- Heedless 3^6urig people. (/.) Aredlight vras seen. 

{^.) The lonel}^ sentinel is tramping. 

(Ji.) That old abbe}^ is deca^nng. 

LESSON- 10. 

I. AVhat do we call a group of words that names a thing, and 
then makes a statement concerning it? 



i8 Talks on Language. — No. 3. 

2. Which part of a sentence do we call the subject? 

3. Which part do we call the predicate? 

4. What do we call a group that asks a question, or gives a 
command ? 

5. Make three sentences, and point out the subject and pred- 
icate of each. 

6. AVhat do we call a noun that names a class, or any one of 
a class? 

7. What do ^ve call a noun that names just one individual of 
a class, and no other? 

8. When is a noun or pronoun in the first person? 

9. When IS a noun or pronoun in the second person? When 
in the third ? Give examples of pronouns in each person. 

10. How is the plural of nouns commonly formed? 

11. In what cases do we vary from this method? 

12. How many genders have nouns? Give examples. 

13. Give examples of adjectives that show quality, condition, or 
kind. 

14. Give examples of adjectives that point out what ones or which 
ones are meant, without showing- quality, condition, or kind. 

15. What do you call the first class? The second? 

16. What do we call words that take the place of nouns? 
Give examples of their use. 

17. Write the following- sentences correctly : — 
(a.) My Friend Arthur is in brazil. 

(b.) He will start for home on the last Wednesday of June. 

(c.) On a bright afternoon in Autumn, thorwald and emily 
visited the Forest to gather Nuts. 

(d.) Naples is a beautiful city m italy 

(<?.) the shortest days of the Year are in december. 

{/.) The democrats and the republicans have been the leading 
parties in our country. 

(^.) The sious are a warlike tribe. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 3. 

PARSING. 



In parsing- a noun, Ave first tell Avhat part of speech it is ; then 
■\ve tell its person, number, and gender, and how it is used in 
the sentence. The pronoun is parsed very much like the noun. 
In parsing the adjective, we first tell what part of speech it is ; 
then we tell whether it is qualifying or limiting, what noun it is 
added to, and for what purpose. For example, take the sentence, — 
"The old man is blind." 
The is an adjective, limiting ; it is added to the noun jnan 
to show that some particular man is meant. 

Old is an adjective, qualifying- ; it is added to man to tell 
the man's age. 

Man is a noun, common, third person, singular number, 
musculine gender, and subject of the sentence. 

Is is a kind of verb called the copula ; it is not an action - 
word but it is a part of the predicate, and without it, no statement 
would be made. 

Blind is an adjective, qualifying; it is used with the cop- 
u'a to form the predicate, and tells a condition of the man. 
For another example, take the sentence, — 

" I rose early." 
I is a pronoun ; it is first person, singular number, does not 
distinguish sex, and is subject of the sentence. 

Rose is a verb ; for it is an action -word that makes a 
statement. 

Early is an adverb ; it is added to the verb rose to tell 
when. 

In writing out the parsing, put a heavy line, or a double line, 
under the words that would be printed in broad, black-faced 
letters, and a single line under those that would be printed in italics. 
Remember that the subject is the word that denotes the person 
or thing- of which a statement is made, about which a question is 
asked, or to whom a command is given ; while the predicate is the 
word or words that make the statement, ask the question, or give 
the command. 



20 Talks on Language. — No. 3. 

LESSON II. 

1. In parsing a noun, Avhat should be told first, what next, 
and so on? 

2. How should a pronoun be parsed? 

3. What is the right order of parsing an adjective? 

4. Write out the parsing of all the words in the following 
sentences, beginning the parsing of each \vord w^ith a new para- 
graph, just as it is done in the models on page nineteen. 

1. Healthy men are strong. 

2. The young child was sick. 

3. Several large trees fell. 

4. He writes rapidly. 

LESSON 12. 
Write the parsing of all the words- in sentences a, ^, c, d, 
and e, on page 16; and correct tl^e following words and sen- 
tences : — 

Examples. 
Follys, vollies, potatos, folioes, lifes. 

1. The ships brought Oranges from new mexico, negroes 
from africa, and monkies from brazil. 

2. I saw six deers and two Ostrich in my uncle's Park. 

2. The thiefs lay down on the leafs under the trees ; but their 
chieves \vent to the village. 

LESSON ij. 

Write a composition about Birds. 

Tn writing this composition, you may, among other things, 
tell some of the qualities of birds ; what they can do, and what 
can be done to them ; how the}^ are useful, and how they are 
troublesome ; some things about domestic fowls, water fowls, etc. ; 
and as much else as you please. 



Talks on Language. — No. 3. 21 

LESSON 14. 
"SVrite out the parsing of all the words in sentences /, g", //, 
I, J, on page 16; and write the following exercise correcth^: — 

1. Washington prairie, new Lisbon, oak center, and A^illage 
creek, are names of post-offices. 

2. The boxs contained candys, buns, ruskes, cookeys, and 
oranges. 

3. On the prairies, in the western part of the Mississippi vally, 
wild buffalos rome in vast herds. 

LESSON- IS. 

Examples. 

{a.) The qiiaiiit old farm-house is decaying slozvly. 

(b.) Merry squirrels frisk gaily. 

(r.) That voice is silent no"w. 

((/.) The fresh young leaves unfold. 

(^.) They \vere very sad. 

(/.) Seven tall hunters listened breathlessly. 
(^.) Those graceful branches sway gently. 

{h?j Two huge icebergs steadily approached. 

(/.) Several fine ships ^vere suddenly sunk. 

(/.) Many bright da3's pass quickW. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the subject in each of these sentences? 

2. What is the predicate in each? 

3. In the first sentence, what words describe the farm-house? 

4. What word tells how it is decaying? 

5. In the third sen.tence, which word tells what voice is meant? 

6. What one tells when the voice is silent? 

7. In the fifth sentence, what word tells how sad they were ? 

8. For what is seve?t used in the sixth sentence? 



22 Talks on Language. — No. 3. 

9. For what is breathlessly used? 

10. In the eighth sentence, what wox'd tells how the icebergs 
approached ? 

11. What word tells indefinitely how many ships are meant? 

12. Parse the italicised words in the above examples. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 4. 

SOME THINGS ABOUT PHRASES. 



Sometimes groups of words, instead of single words, are 
used to describe a thirg, or to tell how, when, or where a thing 
is done. 

Examples. 

1. We started early. 

2. We started before sunrise. 

3. We started before the su?i arose. 

In the first example above, a single word tells when we started ; 
in the second, a group of two words is used t(^ do the same thing. 
This group is called an adverbial phrase, because it does the work 
of an adverb,— it is added to a verb to tell when the action took 
place. In the third example, the group is changed a little. It 
is now called an adverbial clause, because it has a subject and a 
predicate. 

Some of the phi-ases in the examples given belo^v tell when, 
some tell where, and others tell why or how. It would be well 
to distinguish them according to the model that follows them. 

Examples. 

1. The sun shines- on the mountains. 

2. A pleasant stream winds through the valley. 

3. He studies diligently. 

4. He studies with diligence. 

5. We proceeded very cautiouslj^ 

6. W^e proceeded w^ith great caution. 

7. Soldiers fight for fame. 

8. They returned in the evening. 

9. She suffers from a fall. 

10. The dapper ponies pranced upon the roof. 

analysis of example 6. 

"We is the Subject, and proceeded is the Predicate. "With 
great caution tells how we proceeded ; it is an adverbial 
phrase^ added to the verb proceeded. 

The use of the adjective phrase is shown in the following : — 



24 Talks on Language. — No. 4. 

Examples. 

1. Wise men sometimes err. 

2. Men of wisdom sometimes err. 

3. Men 7v//o are -wise sometimes err. 

In the first example above, wise tells what kind of men are 
meant ; in the second and third the groups of wisdom and who 
are wise do the same thing-. They are all adjective elements ; 
the first is a qualifying- adjective, the second is an adjective phrase, 
and the third is an adjective clause. 

THE OBJECT OF A VERB. 

Sometimes the verb is followed by a noun or pronoun that 
tells -what receives the action denoted by the verb, as in the ex- 
amples below. 

I. Cain killed his brother. 2. John chops wood. 

3. The lad caught a speckled trout. 

In the first example, his brother tells who was killed ; it is 
an objective element, added to the verb killed to show w^hat re- 
ceived the action. 

In the second example, wood is added to the verb chops to 
show what receives the action. 

In the third example, a speckled trout tells what was caug-ht ; 
it is an objective element, added to the verb caught to show what 
receives the action. 

FORMS OF THE NOUN AND PRONOUN. 

When I say, '* Mary's kitten lies in her lap," I use one word 
to tell whose kitten is meant, and another to tell whose lap. 
The first is a noun, and the second is a pronoun, but both are 
changed in form when used in this way. The noun has the 
apostrophe and s added to it, and the other seems almost a new 
word. A word so changed to show possession is said to be in 
the possessive case, or, as we shall sav, in the possesive form. 
Most pronouns have a subjective (nominative) form, and also an ob- 
jective form, beside the possessive. 

The subjective form must bj used as the subject of the sentence, 



Talks on Language.— Xo. 4. 25 

and the objective form as object of the verb, and also as the chief 
element of a phrase after a preposition. The noun has only two 
forms, — the ordinary form and the possessive form. The ordinary 
form is used as subject of a sentence, and also as object of a verb, 
and after a preposition. ^Vhen a plural noun ends in .«^, we change 
it to the possessive form by adding the apostrophe only ; but when » 
a noun in the singailar number ends in .<r, we add the apostrophe and 
another .<;■ to make the possessive form. 

ZXAIMPLES. 

JVouJis ajid Pronouns in Different Foi'ms. 

1. I gave mv orange to Mary. 

2. Luther's dog lost his chain. 

3. AVe visited the tombs of our fathers. 

4. He gave his life for us. 

5. Thev deposited vour monev at the bank. 

LESSON lb. 

1. For what are groups of ^vords sometimes used instead of 
single words? 

2. Give an example in which a single word tells ^vhen a 
thing is done. 

3. Give examples in which a group of words does the same 
thing. 

4. AVhat do you call such a group? 

5. Why is it called an adverbial phrase or clause? 

6. How do you tell whether the group is a phrase or a clause ? 

7. "Write out the analysis of examples i to 10, on page 23, 
according to the model there given. 

LESSOX I-. 

1. Show by examples how a group of words may be used to 
do the ^\'ork of an adjective. 

2. Give examples of an adjective "^vord, an adjective phrase, 
and an adjective clause. 

EXA]MPLES. 

1. Industrious men seldom -want. 

2. ]Men of thrifty habits never beg. 

3. Songs of devotion -were heard m the camp. 

4. Such deeds of kindness are remembered. 

5. A ^ell of defiance broke from the savage foe. 

6. A cloud of darkness settled over us. 



26 Talks on I-,anguage.— No. 4. 

Write out the analysis of the sentences on page 25. 

Ex. 2. — Meil is the subject, and beg is the predicate. 
Never tells when thej' beg-. 

Of thrifty habits tells what kind of men are meant ; it is an 
adjective phrase, added to the noun vieji. 

LESSON 18, 

1. Give examples in which the verb is followed by a noun or 
pronoun that tells what receives the action denoted by the verb. 

2. Parse all the words in the three sentences given on page 24, 
and beginning with " Cain killed his brother." 

3. "Write six more sentences something like these, and write out 
the parsing of the nouns that are object of "a verb. 

LESSON ig. 

1. When I say, " Mary's kitten lies in her lap," what word tells 
whose kitten is meant? 

2. What word is used to tell whose lap ? 

3. What part of speech is the first? 

4. How is each changed to make it denote possession? 

5. What do we say of a word so changed to denote possession ? 

6. What other forms do most pronouns have? 

7. How must each of these forms be used ? 

8. How many forms has the noun ? 

9. For what purpose is the ordinary form used ? 

10. How do you make the possessive form ? 

11. AVhen a plural noun ends in s, what do we add to make it de- 
note possession ? 

12. What do we add to a singular noun, ending in st 

13. In examples i to i; page 25 how is each noun used ? 

14. Tell what form each pronoun is in, and how it is used? 

LESSON 20. 
Write the analysis of the following sentences, and parse the ital- 
icized words: — 

1. The vjeaTy soldier leaned against the wall. 

2. Scenes oi^Xory ope7ied\>Qi.orQ.\i\vcv. 

3. 'Joseph's brothers Avere cruel. 

4. The yoimg Hebrew rode in Pharaoh's chariot. 

5. The 3^ellow leaves of autumn i€l\ gently on the stream. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 5. 

DIFFERENT USES OF POSSESSIVE 

NOUNS. 

A NOUN in the possessive case does not ahva5's denote owner- 
ship. In the first of the folloAving- examples the possessive noun 
denotes Kindred ; in the second it denotes Authorship ; in the thhd, 
Orig-in ; in the fourth, Adaptation or Fitness. 
Examples. 

1. Mary''s mother resides in Australia. 

2. Clark^s Grammar has a system (?/" diagrams. 

3. The moon's pale light lay 07i the sea. 

4. Carpenters'' tools are very useful. 

KINDRED, AUTHORSHIP, &c. 

The possessive noun is sometimes used in such a ^vay that we 
can scarce]^- sa^^ it tells Tjhose. Some of these cases are illustrated 
b}' the following-, — 

Examples. 

1. He took a three miles'' walk before breakfast. 

2. He held me at arm\^ length. 

3. Several /c'zmt/.v' \veight \vas added to my burden. 

4. Our independence was gained by a seven years' war. 
In the first of these examples three miles' tells the length of the 

walk. Miles' names measures of distance, and three tells hoAv many 
of these measures it takes to equal the distance traveled. In a sim-. 
ilar manner pounds' names measures of Aveight, and several tells 
indefinitely how many of them equal the -weight here meant. Arm's 
names a measure of length which is just equal to the length here 
meant, and years' names measures of time, while seven tells ho\v 
manv of them it takes to measure the length of the war. 

In using the noun as shown above, be careful to put the apostro- 
phe in the right place. In ai'm's it comes before the .? because it is 
the singular noun arin that is changed to the possessive form by 
adding 's ; but in years' it comes after the .? because it is the plu- 
ral noun years that is changed b})- simply adding the apostrophe. 
The possessive sign should not be omitted in cases of this kind. 



2S Talks on Language.— No. 5. 

PHRASES USED IN PLACE OF POSSESS- 
IVE NOUNS. 

The adjective phrase is often employed, not only to denote own- 
ership, but also to denote origin, fitness, or anything that a noun in 
the possessive form may denote. The following sentences will 

illustrate this use : — 

Examples. 

1. Lmcohi's generosity was remarkable. 

2. The generosity of Lincoln was remarkable. 

These two sentences have exactly the same meaning. In the 
first sentence Ave tell 7vhose generosity is meant, by the use of a noun 
in the possessive form ; while in the second sentence we use the 
same noun Avithout the possessive sign, but with the word of before 
it. So we see that, in this sentence, the preposition shows a relation 
of possession, and is just equivalent to the possessive sign. 

LESSON 21. 

1. Does a possessive noun always denote ownership? 

2. For what other purposes may it be employed ? 

3. Give examples. 

4. Analyze the four sentences given on page 27 to illustrate some 
of these uses, writing the analysis of i and 4. 

5. Parse all the words m these sentences, writing out the parsing 
of those printed in Italics. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Senteiice 2, 
Grammar is the Subject, and has is the Predicate. 
Clark's tells whose grammar is meant by naming the author. 
A system of diagra^ns tells what the grammar has. 
Of diagrams tells what the system pertains to ; it is an adjective 
phrase, added to the noun system. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

System is a noun, com., 3d per., sing, number, neu. gender, and 
object of the verb has. 

Sentence 3. 

Moon's is a noun, com., 3d per., sing, number, neu. gender. 



Talks on Language. — No. 5. 29 

It is added to the noun light to tell where the light comes from — 
its Origin — and is therefore put in the possessive form. 

LESSON 22. 

1. In what peculiar way is the possessive noun sometimes used ? 

2. Give examples sho^ving■ how^ it is used to denote ti^ne, vjeight^ 
measure^ etc. 

3. What caution should be observed in the use of nouns of this 
class? 

4. Why is it that the apostrophe seems sometimes to be put after 
the -s and sometimes before it? 

5. Is it ever proper to omit the possessive sign in cases of this 
kind? 

6. Analyze the four sentences beginning with, "He takes a three 
miles' walk," etc. 

Write the analysis of 3 and 4, and the parsing of all the italicised 
words. 

Not6. — Parse all the words orall3-, and for additional examples 
see " Natural Method," pages 80 to 93. 

LESSON 23. 

1. In what peculiar Avay is possession sometimes shown? 

2. May the phrase be used in this way to denote anything be- 
sides actual possession? 

3. Give examples of its use. 

4. In such cases what noun must be used as the chief word of the 
phrase ? 

5. What takes the place of the possessive sign ? 

6. What relation does it show ? 

7. Write the analysis of the following sentences, and the parsing 
of the italicised words: — 

Examples. 

1. The old mail's thoughts were stidenly interupted. 

2. The ruddy camp -fir e^s gloxv was mirrored in the stream. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Were intei'rupted'i^ a Verb ; for it denotes action and predicates it. 



30 Talks on Language. — No. 5. 

LESSON24. 

Study the following examples ; write the analysis of i and 4, 
and ^vrite out the parsing of the italicized words. 
Examples. 

1. By the honfire\^ glowing light the merry skaters vjere dis- 
tinctly seen. 

2. The mountain is proud oi its snovjy wreath. 

3. A father's blessing rested on his child. 

4. The barge of the queen \vas already proceeding up the river. 

Note- — /^^/^'C'/^t/ is a predicate, but the words must be parsed 
seperately ; for proud does not denote action, but is an adjective used 
with the copula to make the predicate, while />, in this case, is a verb 
by itself. See page 19. 

LESSON 23. 
Write a composition on what you h ive learned in the past lessons. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE— No. 6. 

VERBS: REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 



If I sav, "You talk,^' or " You a7'e talking^'''' I represent the act 
of talking as \)€vl\^ present [going on] at the time I speak of it. But 
if I sa^^ " You talhed^''^ I represent the act of your talking as past at 
the time I speak of it. The verb in the first example is said to be in 
the Present Tense ; but in the second, it is in the Past Tense. So, 
in general, we may say that a verb is in the present tense when it 
shows that the action is going on at the time of mentioning it, and 
in the past tense when it shows the action to be past at the time of 
mentioning it. 

It is generally very easy to tell whether a verb is in the present 
tense or in the past tense ; so we need say but little about it, except 
to notice how the present tense is changed to the past. Such verbs 
as "Avalk," "talk," "work," "play," and many more, make their 
past tense by adding ed to the present tense. There are many verbs, 
liowever, that have no regular way of forming their past tense ; 
such are called Irregular Verbs ; while those that form their past 
tense regularh-, by adding ed^ are called Regular Verbs. 

THE COPULA. 

We have already noticed that kind of verb called the Copula ; 
but ^ve shall have much more to say about it before ^ve get through 
with the studv of language. It takes many different forms, but in 
all of them it is called the verb To Be. In the present tense it is 
atn, is, or are ,' while in the past tense it takes the forms, was and 
raere. In some of the other tenses, which we shall not notice at 
present, the copula is combined with other Avords, and becomes quite 
complicated. All will be plain, however, if we take everything in 
its proper place, and are thorough in all we do. 

Sometiines the Copula and an action -Avord are put together to 
make a verb. For example, we Avill compare the t^vo sentences — 
" Birds _^" and "Birds are Jlymo-." The word "fl}-" denotes 
action and makes a statement : so it is a verb of itself ; but the word 



33 Talks on Language, — No. 6. 

"flying," although it is an action -word, can not make a statement 
without the help of the copula. So " flymg " is not a verb, but the 
two words "are fl^dng " denote action and make a statement, in other 
words, they denote action 2ind pi'edicaie it ; therefore they are called 
a verb. Remember, then, that when an action-word and a copula 
are used togetiier to make a predicate, the}^ constitute a verb, and 
are parsed together as one word. Verbs of this kind are very num- 
erous in our language. 

But the copula is not always used in this u'-ay, as we have seen 
in a good number of instances. It is used with an adjective in the 
predicate, quite as often as it is with an aclion-word. In such cases, 
the copula and adjective are not equivalent to a verb, and are not 
parsed together. The copula is parsed by itself as a verb, and the 
adjective is parsed like any other adjective, only we say that it is 
used with the copula to make the predicate, instead of saying that it 
is added to some noun ; for when an adjective is used with a copula 
to make the predicate, it always describes the subject. 

THE INTRANSITIVE VERB. 

The intransitive verb may denote an act, a me\'Q state, or simply 
existence. 

When it denotes an action, it does not represent that action as 
being received by anything. For example, " Birds fly ; " " Winds 
roar;" "Ships sail." These sentences maybe so changed that 
there will be two words in the verb ; thus : — " Birds are flying ; " 
" Winds are roaring ; " " Ships are sailing." Each of thase verbs 
no\v has a copula in it, but the copula is not the entire verb ; it is 
used simply to give power of predication to the action -word, which 
of itself could not make a statement. Such a group as " are flying," 
"are sailing," etc., is parsed as an Intransitive Verb ; for although 
it predicates an action, it does not represent it as being received by 
anything. 

The intransitive verb may also take two forms when it denotes a 
mere state, or condition ; as, " She r^.?^^ beneath the myrtle's shade," 
or '' She is resting," etc.; "The book lies on the table," or "The 



Talks on Language.— No. 6. 33. 

beck is lyivg^'" etc. 

When the intransitive verb predicates simply the existence of its 
subject, it is alwavs some form of the verb To Be. This is the same 
verb that is used for the copula ; but when it is a copula, it is always 
in the predicate with an adjective, or with a noun, or wuth something- 
that takes the place of a noun. When it is an intransitive verb, it 
is not used with any other word in the predicate, but makes the en- 
tire predicate itself. As we have said before, it simply predicates 
the existence of its subject ; as, *'He was, and is not, and yet />." 
So we see that the same word is sometimes a copula, and sometimes 
an intransitive verb, just according to the way in which it is used. 
The copula always predicates what is denoted by another word in 
the predicate Avith it ; but the intransitive verb predicates the act, 
being", or state, which it denotes itself. 

THE TRANSITIVE VERB. 

Very frequently the verb predicates an action, and represents it 
as being received by something. The verb in such cases is said to 
be Transitive ; because it shows that the action p3.sses to something, 
and traiisiiive means passiiig. 

The action denoted by a transitive verb may be performed b^- the 
subject, and received by something else ; or it may be performed by 
something else, and received by the subject. In either case the 
verb is transitive. The passing of the action from the actor to the 
thing acted upon is just the same, whether I say, " Birds eat cher- 
ries," or "The cherries were devoured by birds." 

The same verb may be either transitive or intransitive, according 
to its use in the sentence. If I say, "The savage shoots his game 
with a bow and arrow," the verb " shoots " is transitive ; but if I 
say, "The savage shoots accurately with the bow^ and arrow," the 
same verb becomes intransitive. True, he could not shoot without 
shooting something, but the verb does not show that the action 
passes to anything, and it is not the purpose of the speaker to bring 
to mind the fact that anything receives the action. So, too, if I say, 



34 Talks on Language. — No. 6. 

"The fire burns brightW," the verb is intransitive ; but when I say, 
"Fire burns wood and coal," the verb is clearly transitive. 

VOICE. 

When the action of a transitive verb is performed by the subject, 
the verb is said to be in the Active Voice ; but when the action is 
received by the subject, the verb is said to be in the Passive Voice. 
The copula never denotes action, and the intransitive verb never rep- 
resents the action as being received by anything : so, of course, the 
distinction of voice does not apply to them. Remember, then, that 
m parsing verbs "^ve give voice to transitive verbs only. 

The transitive verb in the active voice may consist of one "word, 
or of more than one ; but the transitive verb in the passi-be voice 
always consists of the copula and an action -word. 

For Illustrations, Questioning, Analysis, Parsing, Etc., we give 
the following : — 

Examples. 

1. Vines creep over the crumbling walls. 

2. We wander along the shady margin of the lake. 

3. He filled his cup at the mossy spring. 

4. They carry their burden with them. 

5. We were weary with the toils of the day. 

6. The soft shadows lay on the stream. 

7. Fierce wintry winds howl through the forest. 

8. Ovir path was lost in gloom. 

9. The sea is mighty. 

10. Clouds of vapor rise from the ocean's broad expanse. 

11. The maples redden in the sun. 

12. In autumn gold the beeches stand. 

13. The great Ulysses spread his canvass joyfully. 

14. Its folds were caught by the f reshning breeze. 

15. The rocks were worn by the salt sea waves. 

16. A skin of dark red wine she put on board. 

17. The sails are torn ; the mast is broken. 

18. Joseph was sold into Egypt. 



Talks on Language. — Xo. 6. 35 

QUESTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS. 

LESSON 2b. 

1. When is a verb said to be in the present tense? 

2. When is it in the past tense ? 

3. Give examples of both tenses. 

4. Why is it needful to say but little about these two tenses ? 

5. What is the most important thing- to notice? 

6. When are verbs said to be regular? 

7. When are they irregular? 

8. Give examples of both kinds. 

9. In the list of examples given in this talk, how many of the 
verbs are in the present tense ? 

10. How many of them are m the past tense? 
ri. What ones are regular? 

12. What ones are irregular? 

13. Select five sentences that have verbs in the past tense. 

14. Select five sentences that have verbs in the present tense. 

15. Select three sentences that have irregular verbs. 

16. Select four sentences that have regular verbs. 

LESSON- 27. 

1. What verb is the copula, in all its forms? 

2. AVhat forms does it take in the present tense? 

3. What forms does it take in the past tense ? 

4. For what purpose are the copula and an action-word some- 
times put together ? 

5. What is the verb in the sentence " Birds fly " ? 

6. Wh^' is " fly " a verb? 

7. In the sentence "Birds are flying," why is not "flying" a 
verb ? 

8. What must it have with it, in order to make a statement? 

9. What does it take, then, to make a verb ? 

10. What should be remembered Avith reference to parsing such 
groups ? 



^6 Talks on Language. — No. 6. 

11. In what other way is the copula as often used as with the 
action -word in predicate? 

12. In such cases are the copula and the adjective parsed tog-ether 
as a verb ? Why not ? 

13. How should they be parsed ? 

14. What does the adjective always describe when it is used with 
the copula to make the predicate ? 

15. Which of the examples, i to 18, have the copula and another 
word to make the predicate ? 

16. In which of these sentences should these two words be parsed 
together as a verb ? 

17. Wh}^ should they not be so parsed in the other sentences? 

iS. Select three sentences that have a copula and an action-word 
for the verb. 

19. Select three sentences that have a copula and an adjective for 
- the predicate. 

LESSON 28. 

1. What may the intransitive verb denote? 

2. What peculiarity has it when it denotes an action ? 

3. Give examples of sentences each containing an intransitive 
verb that consists of a single word. 

4. So change these sentences that they will have two words in 
each verb and still have the same meaning. 

5. How should we parse such a group as "are flAdng," "am 
writing," "is singing?" 

6. Show how the intransitive verb may take these two forms 
when used to predicate mere state, or condition. 

7. What must the intransitive verb always be when it predi- 
cates simply the existence of its subject? 

S. How may we know when the verb To Be is a copula, and 
when it is an intransitive verb? 

9. What does the copula ahvays predicate? 

10. What does the intransitive verb always predicate? 

11. Which of the verbs in examples i to 18 are intransitive? 



Tai-KS ox La^s'guage. — Xo. 6. 37 

12. AMiich of them predicate action? 

13. ^\Tiich of them predicate state? 

14. Parse the adjectives in examples 2 and 5, 

15. Select six sentences containing- intransitive verbs. 

LESSOX 2Q. 

1. 'U^HZX is a verb said to be transitive? 

2. TMiv is this name appropriate? 

3. By what may the action of a transitive verb be performed, 
and by what may it be received ? 

4. Is the verb transitive just the same when the subject re- 
ceives the action as it is vrhen the subject performs the action 
and something- else receives it? 

5. Show how this is, by examples. 

6. Show bv examples how the same verb mav be sometimes 
transitive, and at other times intransitive. 

7. What must be the test question in determining whether a 
verb is transitive or intransitive? Ans. — Xot whether the action 
2<: or fnjist he received by something, but whether the sentence it- 

■:If shozi's that the act is received by something. 

S. "UTiat verbs in examples i to iS are transitive? 
9. \'Miich of them represent the subject as performing the act, 
and something- else as recei%-ing- it? 

10. Which of them represent the subject as receiving the action ? 

11. Parse the nouns and pronouns in examples 3 and 4. 

LESSOX 30. 

1. ^Vhex is a transitive verb said to be in the active voice? 

2. AVhen is it said to be in the passive voice? 

3. "V\1iy do not the copula or the intransitive verb have voice ? 

4. "\Miat should be remembered in parsing verbs? 

5. Of Avhat must a verb in the passive voice alw^avs consist? 

6. "Which cf the verbs in examples i to iS are in the passive 
voice ? 

7. "UTiich of them are in the active voice? 
S. Analyze examples 10, 12, and 13. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.-No. 7. 

QUESTIONS AND COMMANDS. 



When we wish to command or exhort, we generally drop the 
subject; as, "Come to me;" "Be diligent;" "Hearken to the 
words of instruction." 

In speaking to a person, we never use his name as subject, 
but always the pro7iou7i in the second pei'son. Now in command - 
ing or exhorting, we are always speakmg to some one ; so the 
subject is always you, except in what is called the solemn style. 
In that stA^e, used in the Bible, and sometimes in poetry, or very 
serious discourse, thoji is subject in the singular number, and j/^ 
in the plural. 

The same sentence that commands a person of inferior rank, 
becomes an exhortation when addressed to an equal, and a peti- 
tion when addressed to a superior. 

Verbs that cominand, exhort, or supplicate, are said to be in 
the Imperative Mode; for "imperative" means "commanding," 
and the leading use of this mode is to command. Ordinary 
verbs, that simply indicate or declare something, are said to be in 
the Indicative Mode. 

In asking a question, we usually put the verb, or the first 
word of it, before the subject; as "Are you going?" "Was it 
thunder?" "Have ye a father?" 

Sometimes, instead of inquiring for an action or any other 
such fact, we want to inquire for the time, place, manner, purpose, 
or cause, of an action. In such cases, we introduce the question 
by some such word as how, where, why, or when / as, " When 
are you going?" " Where was it found?" etc. 

For further remarks and illustrations see "Natural Method," 
pages III to 116, 

PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

[ When the subject is in the third person, and singular num- 



Talks on Language. — No. 7. 39 

her, we add .t to the present tense of the verb, as may be seen 
by the following examples :— 

First Person, Singular Number. — I walk. 

" " Plural " We walk. 

Second " Singular " You walk. 

" " Plural " You walk. 

Third " " " They walk. 

" " " " The men walk. 

Third Person, Singular Number. — He walk<r. 

" " " " She walk^-. 

" " " " It walk.<i-. 

" " " " The man walk.?. 

" " " " The horse wa]k.<r. 

Try the verb "write," with the same subjects; also "talk," 
" sin^," "work," "play," "think," and as many more as you 
please ; and unless you take the verb To Be, you will find that 
in every instance the verb in the present tense changes its form 
for a subject in the third person, singular number, and for no 
other. 

PAST tense. 

By changing these verbs to the past tense, and using them 
with the same subjects, it will be seen that there is no change 
whatever for the person and number of th'C subject ; thus: — 

I talked. He talked. 

We talked. She talked, 

You talked, It talked, 

They talked, The parrot talked. 

The same will be found true of any verb except the verb To 
Be. We find, then, that ordinary verbs have no change in the 
past tense, and only one in the present. The change in the pres- 
ent tense consists of adding "s" or "es," and is never made ex- 
cept for a subject in the third person, singular number. 



■40 ■ ■. ■ ' "-iT^LKS Oi<j -Language. — Na.)j. .;;_'. /I ^J /\ f 

THE V.^ELB. "to BE." 

The verb Td Be differs from other verbs AvitA respect to its 
changes for the person and number of the subject. LTvyo'^. 

When the subject is in the first person, singular*Tnumben;rthe 
verb must be am. ; when the subject is in the third pei-sbit, sftfg-u - 
lar number, the verb must be is; in all other case^^t'miS^t'be 

are. ' ^''^^^i . 

In the past tense this verb has two forms. With ftT^-dbj^cl'in 
the first person, singular number, or in the third person-^ si n^iMr 
number, it must be "was; but with all other subjects' it mi\§f-%e 

were, .r-vf -^ y 

The following examples will show the forms of the^^verb To 
Be, in their proper use. ^^ 

PUBS. TENSE. PAST TeWsE., 

I zuas writing. 
He wa.9 condemned. 
She was watching. 
It zuas jinking. 
The diiy^ was warm. 

We were ^ atcu s e d . 
You w^^'-kehjsen. 
You were diligent. 
They were dilatory'. 
Books ■vjere read.- 

COMPLETE PARSING OF THE VERB. 

We are now ready for the complete parsing of the verb. In 
doing so, ^ve tell : — ,,, 

1. What part of speech it is, and whether it is regular or irreg- 
ular. 

2. 'Whether it is transitive, intransitive, or a copula. 

3. If transitive, Avhat voice it is in. 

4. The mode and tense. ■ ' 



ISt 


Per.; 


, Sing. 


N. 


— I am studying. 


3d 


" 


" 


" 


He is studying. 
She is benevolent. 
It is amazing. 
The ox is gentle. 


ISt 


Per., 


Plu. 


N.- 


—We are late. 


2d 


" 


Sing. 
Pj.u. 


" 


You are invited. 
You are welcome. 


3rd 


,, 


" 


„ 


Thsy are coming. 
Clouds are dark. 



Talks on Language. — No. 7. 41 

5. What form it takes ^Yith reference to its subject. 

Whenever the verb does not change its form, it is not really 
necessary to give its person and number ; but it will be better to 
say that it has the ordinary form. 

MODELS FOR PARSING THE VERB. 

Ex. — The harvest moon shines softly on the lake. 

SllineS is a verb, irreg-., intr. ; indie, mode, present tense; 
it has s added to it liecause its subject is in the third person, 
singular number. 

Ex. — Huge zvaves are heating the rocks at my feet. 

Are beating is a verb, irreg., trans., active voice : ind. 
mode, present tense. The copula has the ordinary form. 

Ex. — / am zveary zvith the clatter of the schools. 

Am is a verb, irreg., copula ; indie, m., pres. t. It takes 
this form because its subject, /, is in the first person, sing. num. 

Ex. — A sable cloud tiirjis forth her silver linijig. 

Turns is a verb, reg., trans., active v. ; indie, m., pres. t. ; 
it has J^ added to it because its subject, cloud, is in the third per., 
sing. n. 

Ex. — Ponder the vjays of thy feet. 

Ponder is a verb, reg., trans., active v. ; imperative m., 
pres. t., ordinary form. 

Ex. — A sound of wheels zvas heard. 

Was heard is a verb, irreg., trans., passive v. ; indic. m., 
past t. Was is used instead of vjere because its subject, sounds 
is in the third per., sing. n. 

Ex. — His eyes vjere moist with tears of peniteiice. 
Were; Verb, irreg., copula; indic. m., past t., ordinary 



42 Talks on Language. — No. 7. 

form. 

Ex. — God is good. 

Is ; Verb, irreg., cop. ; indie, m., pres. t. It takes this 
form because its subject, God, is in the third per., s. n. 

Ex. — He trod the dark valley alone. 

Trod. 5 Verb, irreg-., trans., active v. ; mdic. m., past t. 
This verb does not change its past tense for the person and num- 
ber of its subject. 

General Examples. 

1. The blue hills dip])ed their feet in the sea. 

2. Their heads were lifted toward the sky. 

3. Froin a little shelf the sacred tome she took. 

4. The plowman is whistling- o'er the furrowed land. • 

5. That star now holds the top of heaven. 

6. A mighty wave lifted its crest above our frail vessel. 

7. The breeze ^vas caught by the silken sails. 

S. They walked on either side, with the dusty road between 
them. 

9. The monarch rules with a gentle hand. 

10. Her eye is mild, with a look of sadness. 

11. He seized the mane with both his hands. 

12. The sunlight pierced the thick green foliage. 

13. It flecked the dead leaves below. 

14. The lake was smooth as glass. 

15. It shone like molten silver. 

16. The white clouds were reflected in its bosom. 

17. I was charmed by the quiet loveliness of the scene. 

18. Our Creator made a beautiful world for us. 

19. A goodly share of that beauty survives the curse. 

20. A generous mind admires the works of God in nature. 

LESSON 31- 
I. When is a word called a verb? 



Talks on Language. — No. 7. 43 

2. Tell when a verb is regular, and when it is irregular. 

3. Tell when it is a copula, when it is transitive, and when 
it is intransitive. 

4. What do ^ve say of a transitive verb when its subject per- 
forms the action? 

^, ^Vhat do \ve say of a verb ^vhen its subject receives the 
action ? 

6. Do intransitive verbs have voice? "Wh^- not? 

7. When a verb is used to command, to exhort, or to entreat, 
what mode do we say it is in? 

8. What mode is it in when it makes a statement or asks a 
question ? 

9. Tell which of the verbs in the General Examples are regular ? 

10. Tell which ones are transitive, and which ones are intran- 
siti ve. 

11. Which of the sentences have a verb made up of the cop- 
ula and an action -word? 

12. Tell which verbs consist of the copula alone, 

13. Tell vv'-hich of the verbs are in the active voice, and which 
of them are in the passsive voice. 

14. Which of the verbs are in the imperative mode? 

15. In what mode are the other verbs? 

LESSOjYs2. 

T. How do we change a verb in the present tense, when its 
subject IS in the third person, singular number? 

2. Do Ave change the past tense in the same ^vay? 

3. What verb is an exception? 

4. In "Natural Method," page 107, (a.), you will find a list 
of verbs. If you should put them in sentences, which of them 
would require a subject in the third person, singular number? 

5. Under (b.), you will find a list of subjects. If you should 
give each of these subjects a verb in the present tense, which of 
them would require s or es to be added to its verb? 

6. Fill requirement (a.), under " Seat Work," on the same page. 



44 Talks on Language, — No. 7. 

7. In sentences 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, under (b.), tell what words 
are wrong, what changes should be made, and why? 

LESSON33. 

1. What forms does the verb To Be take in the present tense? 

2. With what kind of subject should each of them be used ? 

3. What forms does this verb take in the past tense? 

4. When should each of them be used? 

5. Write out the Seat Work on page iii, "Natural Method." 

LESSON34. 

1. In parsing the verb, what do wa tell first, what next, etc.? 

2. Write the parsing of the verbs in sentences i, 2, 6, 7, 10, 
13, 17, in the General Examples. 

3. Write the analysis of sentences 3, 11, 19. 

LESSON3S, 

Write a composition on "The Forest." 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 8. 



THE NOUN IN PREDICATE. 

Sometimes we take a peculiar way of describing- a person or 
thing-. AVe say a man is a farmer, a merchant, or a lawyer ; 
and bv telling what class of men he belong-s to, we describe the 
man so far as his occupation is concerned. If I say a man is a 
poet, or a philosopher, I give an idea of his tastes, and habits 
of thought. When I call the tool I am describing- a spade, I 
have not told you the special properties of the particular imple- 
ment in hand, but vou knoAv all its general characteristics, just 
bj' knowing the class of things to which it belongs. 

We have two wavs of telling that a thing belongs to a class. 
I may say, "Chaucer zyas the oldest poet in our language ; " or I 
mav say, "Chaucer, the oldest poet in our language, wrote five 
hundred years ago." In the first instance I put the noun puiet 
in the predicate, and so make a positive statement ; while in 1he 
second, I want to mention the fact incidentalh', and so I do not 
])ut the noun in the predicate. So I mav say "Arnold vjas a 
traitor ^''^ or " Arnold tJie traitor,''^ etc. In the first case I predicate 
that he belongs to a class, and in the second I assume it. 

If I say, "Edward is a skillful painter," I predicate not onlv 
that he l>elongs to a class called painters, but that he belongs to 
that class of painters who have skill in their profession.- So, 
by the use of adjective words, phrases, and clauses, we make the 
description more or less definite, as may suit our purpose. 
For example : — 

He is an able lawyer. He is a law^-er of ability . 

He is a lawyer vjho haa ability. 

He is a law\-er ~vho is always true to his client. 



If I say, "Jerry Lang was a thief," I name a person, and pred- 
icate that he belongs to a class ; but if I say, " The thief was Jerri- 
Lang," I first mention one of a class, and then identify him by 



46 Talks on Language. — No. 8. 

g^iving his proper name. We may assume identit}^ as well as 
predicate it ; as, " The noted thief, 'Jerry Lang, has been caught." 

APPOSITION. 

It may be noticed that in all the examples given above, we 
first name a thing, and then give it another name for the purpose 
of describing or identifymg it. Now the word "apposition" 
means "the act of adding to," and so a noun that is added to 
another noun, just to explain or identify it by giving it another 
name, is said to be in apposition -with the noun to which it is added. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — Philip, the chief of the Pokanokets, vjas a bold vjarrior. 
Philip is the Subject, and was warrior is the Predicate. 

The chief of the Pokanokets describes Philip by teii- 

mg to what class he belonged. It is an appositional phra,se added 
to the noun Philip. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — Tecumseh was a prophet. 

Prophet; Noun, com., 3d per., sing, n., masc. gen. ; it is 
used with the copula to form the predicate, and therefore has the 
Subjective, or ordinary, Form. 

Ex. — Teciunseh the prophet was an Indian chief. 

Prophet; Noun, com., 3d p., sing, n., masc. gen. ; it de- 
scribes Tecumseh by naming one of a class to which he belonged, 
and is therefore put in the Same Form. 

Ex. — We lost the boy Henry while crossing the svjamp. 

Henry is a noun, proper, 3d p., sing, n., masc. gen. ; it is 
added to the noun boy to identif}^ the boy here meant, and there- 
fore has the same form as that noun. 



Talks on Language. — No. S. 47 

Ex. — It is /, he not afraid, 

I is a pronoun, ist p., sing, n., does not distinguish sex ; it is 
used with the copula to make the predicate, and is therefore put in 
the Subjective Form, 

Ex. — Father and me -went to tovm. 

Me is a pro., ist p., sing, n., does not tell the sex ; it is one 
of the Subjects of the sentence, and should be in the Subjective 
Form, which is /. 

Ex. — It zvas Mary a?id me. 

Was is a verb, irreg., copula ; indie, m., past t. ; it takes 
this form because its subject is in the 3d p., sing. n. 

Me is a pro., etc. ; it is used with the copula in making 
the predicate, and should therefore be in the Sub. Form, /. 

Ex. — The teacher reproi^ed my seat- mate and I. 

I is a pro., etc. ; it is one of the Objects of the verb reproved, 
and should therefore be in the Objective Form, me. 

Ex. — The sled vjas 7nade for him. 

Him is a pro., 3d p., sing, n., masc. g. ; Ohj. of prep. /(^r, 
and therefore put in the Objective Form. 

General Examples. 

I. The cow is a quadruped. 
i. Our climate is healthful, 

3. Abraham was a patriarch. 

4. The patriarch Abraham was a faithful man. 

5. The Orinoco is a large river. 

6. The river Amazon drains a large part of South America. 

7. Texas is the largest state in the Union. 
S. The Bible is a holy book. 

9. Botany is a pleasant stud3\ 
10. In the dusk of evening came a red man to our dwelUing. 



48 Talks on Language. — No. 8. 

11. He was diguised with ugly war-paint, 

12. In one hand he held a tomahawk. 

13. He resembled the picture of Osceola, the famous Seminole 
chief. 

14. The early Romans were sturdy foemen. 

15. William the Conqueror invaded England in the eleventh 
century. 

16. The Norman invaders Avere fond of poetry. 

17. Soldiers sang on the field of battle. 

18. Come to the land of the olive and vine. 

19. Our hardy backwoodsmen were the best soldiers in the army. 

20. Peter, the cowardly disciple, was finally the boldest preacher 
among them. 

21. Our Saviour taught t\vo days in Sychar, a city of Samaria. 

22. Mary, the sister of Lazarus, listened very attentively to the 
words of Jesus. 

23. Paul, the great apostle to the Gentiles, was a native of 
Tarsus, a city in the province of Cilicia. 

24. Be a hero in the strife. 

25. Our most noted dramatic writer is William Shakspeare. 

LESSON36. 

1. In what peculiar way do we sometimes describe a person? — 
By saying that he belongs to some class whose characteristics are 
vjell kno7U7i. 

2. Give examples. 

3. Show by examples how lifeless objects may be described in 
the same \vay. 

4. How many wa^'^s have we of sa5dng that a thing belongs 
to a class? 

5. Illustrate by examples. 

6. Show by examples that we have the same two ways of 
saymg that a thing has a certain quality. 

7. What do we do when we wish to make a positive state- 
ment of the fact? 



Talks on Language. — Xo. 6. 49 

8. How ma^' we make the description more definite? 

9. Illustrate by examples. 

10. Parse the verbs in sentences 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, of the general 
examples. 

LESSON37. 

1. Show by examples how we may predicate or assume the 
identity of a person. 

2. AVhich of the General Examples predicate identit^^? 

3. Which of them assume identit}^? 

4. What is the meaning- of the ^yord apposition ? 

5. Why does this word fitly apply to the nouns used on the 
preceding- page to denote class or identity? 

6. When is a noun in apposition proper? — When it is hut a7i- 
other name for a thing that has already heen 7iamed, a?id is added 
to the first ?iame merely to describe, explai?i, or identify the thing 
named. 

7. Ho\y do we describe the case \yhen the second noun is put 
in the predicate ? — It is called predicated apposition. 

8. Which of the nouns in the General Examples are in appo- 
sition proper? 

9. Which of them are in predicated apposition? 

10. Anah'ze sentence 10. 

11. Parse the nouns in sentence 4. 

LESSON 38. 

1. Analyse sentence 13, and parse the words he, resetnbled, 
and chief. 

2. Analyze sentence 22. 

3. Parse the verbs in sentences 16, 17, 18. 

LESSONsq. 

1. Analyze sentences 23 and 24. 

2. Parse Co7iqueror, Willia^n Skakspear, be, city in ex. 23, 
herOf and sister. 



50 Talks on Language. — No. S, 

LESSON 40. 

1. What form must a pronoun have when it is the subject of 
a sentence, 

2. In what other situations must it have the same form ? 

3. When must a pronoun take the Objective Form ? 

4. What pronouns are in the Subjective Form? 

5. What ones are in the Objective Form? 

6. Which ones are in the Possessive Form? 

7. I£ow do we make the possessive form of nouns? 
S, When do we have to add .? or es to the verb? 

9. What forms does the copula take in the past tense, and 
when should each be used? 

10. What are its forms in the present tense, and when should 
each be used? 

11. When is a verb transitive? 

12. When is it intransitive? 

13. When is a verb in the active voice, and when in the passive? 

14. What form must a noun or pronoun take when it is in ap^ 
position ? 

15. W^hat form must it take when it is used with the copula in 
making the predicate? 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 9, 



PARTICIPLES. 

We have already seen that when we wish to state that a thing 
has a certain quality, for instance, that it is white, black, strong-, 
tall, good, or bad, we have to put a copula before the adjective 
that denotes the quality. This is called predicating the quality, 
or predicating that it exists in the thing described ; for it makes 
a positive statement of the fact. The adjective alone, without 
the copula, can never predicate anything. 

When we wish to predicate an action, the case is somewhat 
different ; for some action-words can inake a statement without 
the aid of the copula, and some can not. Those that can predi- 
cate (make a statement) Avithout the help of any other ^vord, are 
called verbs ; but those that can not do this have another namx-, 
as we shall presently see. 

In our past lessons Ave have had many action -words which, if 
taken alone, v^'o^lld not be verbs ; but taken Avith the copula they 
are parsed as verlis ; for the two together make a statement. 

The following examples afford an illustration : — 

Examples. — The bird is si7iging ,' Shores were vj ashed ; Bones 
wexQ fotmd ; Clouds tvx^ fioating ; The lad was standing on the 
rock. 

When we do not wish to make a direct statement concerning 
the quality, but rather to speak of it incidentally, or mention it as 
a thing alread}^ known, w^e simph'- join the adjective to the name 
of the thing described, but put no copula before it. In that 
case we say that the quality is asssumed. We often assume a 
qviality, and predicate an action in the same sentence ; or we 
may assume one quality, and predicate another. 

Examples. — Cold winds are blowing ; Beautiful snow covers 
the earth ; Deep forests are somber. 

Such action words as cannot predicate the action they denote, 
may be used to assume action of a thing, just as adjectives may 
be used to ussume quality. 



52 Talks on Language.— No. 9. 

Examples. 

1. That bird sing-ing in the apple-tree is a robin. 

2. The shores washed by its bright waves are very beautiful. 

3. The bones found in the hillock were much crumbled. 

4. The clouds, floating so calmly above us, were mirrored in 
the lake below. 

5. That lad standing on the rock is the captain's son. 

6. Gazing out over the sea, we saw a dark object floating to- 
ward the shore. 

In the first example above, we predicate that the bird we are 
talking about belongs to the class of birds called robins ; but at 
the same time, we asswne an action of the bird. We do not 
say that the bird is singing; but we mention the action as some- 
thing already known. We speak of it just to show what bird 
is meant. 

The word siiiging is partly like a verb, and partly like an 
adjective. It is like a verb because it denotes the same action 
as the verb sings^ and the same that it would with a copula be- 
fore it ; and again, such words as this are like verbs because they 
may be limited by adverbs and adverbial phrases, added to tell 
where, how, when, or why, the action was done, just as they do 
when added to the verb. They are unlike the verb because they 
can not make a statement — can not predicate the action — while a 
verb can. 

They are like adjectives, because they are sometimes used w^ith 
the copula to make a predicate, and are sometimes just added to 
a noun to describe or point out the thing which the noun names. 

They are unlike adjectives, because they usually denote action, 
and with the copula may make not only a predicate, but a verb, 
at the same time ; while the adjective does not denote action, and 
can not unite with the copula to make a verb, although it often 
unites with it to make a predicate. 

Now since these action -words that can not predicate anything 
are partly like adje cives and partly like verbs, they may be said 



Talks on Language.— No. 9. 53 

to participate in the nature of both, and are therefore called Partici- 
ples. 

Participles, as well as adjectives, often denote state^ or condition^ 
as will be seen in some of the sentences below. 

"W"e maj^ sa}-, then, that a verb is a word that denotes action, 
being-, or state, and predicates it ; while a participle is a word 
that denotes action, being, or state, without predicating it. 

General Examples. 

1. Pausing a moment, we listened attentively. 

2. Wakmg suddenly, he called for water. 

3. The strong man, trusting in himself, forgets caution. 

4. Weary with his journey, he fell asleep. 

5. The young soldier, eager for fame, pressed resolutely for- 
ward. 

6. The wary savage, hearing a slight rustle, crouched behind 
a rock. 

7. Fearing an attack, we slept on our arms. 

S. Behind him rose the hill, shutting out the past. 
9. On the side of the hill lay a large park, reaching down to 
the river. 

10. He carried a small wallet, filled with oat cakes. 

11. Following the stream, we soon came to an old mill. 

12. Beneath him the Saco its ^vork is doing, hurrying do\vn 
to its grave, the sea. 

13. The twain are stealing through the wood, leaving the down- 
ward-rushing flood. 

14. The swift stream flowed on, plunging in steep cascade, toss- 
ing its white-maned waters against the hemlock's shade. 

15. Dashing from mossy rocks its spray, close at her feet the 
river rushes. 

16. The oak tree, struggling with the blast, devours its father 
tree. 



54 Talks on Language. — No. 9. 

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 

By studying the General Examples it will be seen how adverb- 
ial words and phrases are used to limit participles, just as they 
are to limit verbs. 

In the first example, "pausing- a moment" describes the 
speaker, and those associated with him, by telling- incidentally 
\vhat they did. It does not predicate the fact, but merely as- 
sumes it. "Pausing" denotes the a.ction, and "a moment" tells 
ho\v long we paused. It is a phrase with the preposition "for" 
understood. 

In the second example, the participle "waking" is limited by 
the adverb "suddenl}^," which is added to tell how he woke. 
In the third example, "in himself" is added to the participle 
"trusting" to tell where he placed his trust. 

The participle, and the words that limit it, all taken together, 
make a Participial Phrase. In the tenth example, "filled with 
oat cakes" is a participial phrase, added to the noun "wallet." 
But "with oat cakes" is an adverbial phrase, added to the par- 
ticiple "filled" to tell how the wallet was filled. 

Adjectives, as well as participles, may be limited by adverb- 
ial words and phrases, as may be seen in examples 4 and 5. 

An adjective and its limiting words, all taken together, make 
what we call an Adjectival Phrase. 

In the fourth example, "weary with his journey" describes 
the man alluded to by "he." 

It is an adjectival phrase, added to the pronoun " he." 
"Weary" is the adjective word, and "with his journey" tells 
how he became weary. It is an adverbial phrase, added to the 
adjective "weary." 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — The ore take?! from that mine is rich in gold-hearing quartz. 

Ore is the Subject, and is rich is thej^Predicate. 

Taken from that mine points out the ore here meant ; 



Talks on Language.— Xo. 9. 55 

it is a participial phrase, added to the noim ore. FrOHl that 
mine tells us whence the ore is taken ; it is an adverbial phrase, 
added to the participle taken. 

In gold-hearijig quartz tells us how the mine is rich ; — in 
what its richness consists;— it is an adverbial phrase, added to 
the predicate is rick. 

'^^.—Dro;pping his giin, he caught the villian by the throat. 
He is the Subject, and caught is the Predicate. 
Dropping his gun describes the person represented b^^ 
the subject ; it is a participial phrase, added to the pronoun he. 
The villian tells whom he caught. 

By the throat tells how he caught him ; it is an adverbial 
phrase, added to tlie verb caught. 

LESSON ii. 

1. How do we state that a thing has a certain quality? 

2. Why do we call this predicatitig the quality ? 

3. Can this be done by the adjective alone? 

4. By what must the adjective be aided? 

5. Is the case exactly the same when we wish to predicate 
an action? 

6. What makes the difference? 

7. AVhat do we call those action -words that can make a state- 
ment? 

S. Give examples of action -words that, if taken alone, can not 
predicate the action. 

9. When do we simply join the adjective to the noim, putting 
no copula before it? 

10. WTiat do we call that method of expressing the qualit}'? 

11. W^hat do we often do in a single sentence? 

12. Give five examples of a sentence that assumes a qualit}^ and 
predicates an action ? 

13. Give five examples of a sentence that assumes one quality 
and predicates artother? 



56 Talks on Language. — No. 9. 

14. How may -we assume action of anything-? 

15. What words assume action in the numbered examples on 
the first page of this talk? 

16. To what noun or pronoun is each of them added? 

17. What is predicated in the first of these sentences? 
iS. What is assumed in the same sentence? 

19. What do ^ve mean by assummo- an action of the bird? 

20. The word singing, as here used, is like what two parts of 
speech? 

21. In what two ways is such a word like a verb? 

22. How are such Avords unlike a verb? 

23. How are they like adjectives in their use? 

24. How are they unlike adjectives? 

LESSON 42. 

1. What may be seen by studying the examples on page 53? 

2. In the first example, who is described by the phrase "paus- 
ing a moment" ? ] 

3. How does it describe them ? : 

4. In Vk^hat way does it present the fact? 

5. How is the participle of this phrase limited? 

6. How is it limited in the second and third examples? 

7. What constitutes a participial phrase? 

8. Point out the participial phrase in the tenth example. 

Q. What other phrase is included in this participial phrase? 

10. For what purpose is it used? 

11. By whit may adjectives be limited? 

12. What name is given to an adjective and its limiting words 
taken together? 

13. What adjectival phrases can you point out in the General 
Examples? 

14. What does each describe? 

15. What does each of these phrases include? 

16. What does each of these adverbial phrases do? 

17. Write the analysis of the first three sentences in the Gen- 
eral Examples. 



Talks on Language. — No. 9. 57 

LESSON 43. 

1. What are the subject and predicate in sentence 2, page 52. 

2. Point out the participial phrase. 

3. By what is the participle limited? 

4. Parse the verb in the third sentence. 

5. What is the participial phrase in this sentence? 

6. By what is the participle limited? 

7. By what is the participle limited in the fourth sentence? 

8. What is the participial phrase in the fifth sentence? 

9. Parse captain^s and son. 

10. Point out the participial phrases in sentence 6. 

11. To what is each of them added? 

12. How is each of the participles limited? 

13. Which of the General Examples contains a noun in appo- 
sition ? 

14. Parse that noun. 

15. Analyze the entire sentence. 

16. AVhich of the sentences has two participial phrases? 

17. How is each of the participles limited? 

18. What objective element is added to one of them? 

19. What other participles in the General Examples are limited 
by an object? 

20. Which of them is limited by an adverbial word and an ad- 
verbial phrase? 

LESSONS 44 & 45. 

1. Write a compositition. 

2. Make a list of the participial and adjectival phrases used 
in the composition. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. lo. 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

The word adjective means "added to a noun." So we may 
sa5^ that an}'' word, or g-roup of words, is an Adjective Element 
whenever it is added to a noun. A word is said to be added to 
a noun when it is used to describe, or point out, the thing named 
by the noun. 

In one sense, every predicate is added to its subject ; for the 
predicate ahvays describes or points out the subject in some way. 
But the importance of the predicate is such that it is regarded as 
one of the principal elements of the sentence, and so is not spoken 
of as being added to the subject. It is not, however, wholly 
independent of the subject ; for it must sometimes change its form 
to agree with the person and number of its subject. The rela- 
tion of the subject and predicate to each other and to the rest of 
the sentence, is not wholly unlike the relation of the parents in a 
family. 

We have seen that an adjective element may be a word, an or- 
dinary adjective phrase, or an adjectival phrase. The participle 
and the participial phrase, are also adjective elements. The ad- 
jective describes by assuming a quality or condition : while the 
participle describes or points out bv assuming and act, being, or 
state. 

A noun in apposition is still another kind of adjective element ; 
for it is added to a noun to describe or identify the object named. 
The appositional noun, taken with all the words that limit it, makes 
an Appositional Phrase, just as the participle with its limitations 
makes a participial phrase. 

Among the adjective elements, then, we have three kmds of 
words, and four kinds of phrases ; namely, the adjective, the 
participle, and the noun in apposition ; the ordinary adjective 
phrase, the adjectival phrase, the participial phrase, and the ap- 
positional phrase. 



Talks ox I.axguage.— No. io. 59 

PUNCTUATION OF ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

With reference to their punctuation, the same law appHes to 
all adjective elements. When the element is added to the noun 
for the evident purpose of telling- -uihat one, or which particular 
thing of the kind, is meant, it is said to resti'ict the meaning- of 
the noun ; that is, it sets a hound Io its meaning ; for it keeps it 
from meaning an^'thing of the kind, except the very thing, or 
class of things, here pointed out. Whenever any adjective ele- 
ment is used to tell which particular object, or class of objects, is 
meant ; or whenever the writer uses it to keep the noun from hav- 
ing too broad an application, the adjective element is said to be 
restrictive, and must not, as a rule, be separated from the word 
^vhich it limits by any mark of punctuation. 

Whenever an adjective element does not seem to be used to 
restrict, bvit merely to describe a thing, or to add an incidental 
thought, it is non-restrictive, and should be set off. 

In trying to find out whether an adjective element is restrictive 
or non -restrictive, the question is not ^vhether the element might 
be used to point out a particular thing, but whether it is used for 
that purpose in this sentence. 

The same ^vord, or group of words, may be restrictive in one 
sentence and non -restrictive in another. The following examples, 
as well as those in the last Talk, will give some idea of the wa^^ 
in which this principle of punctuation is applied : — 

1. That lady leaning over the balcony is a cousin of the queen. 

2. Janet's mother, leaning from the carriage, dropped an apple 
into the child's lap. 

3. The wicked Ahab, confident of success, refused the prophet's 
counsel. 

4. Graceful Golden -rods, heavy with sunshine, drooped from 
the bank. 

5. King Solomon, with all his wisdom, was led into idolatry. 

6. A king with such a character deserves the contempt of his 
subjects. 

7. Quito, the capital of Ecuador, lies nearly under the equator. 



6o Talks on Language. — No. lo. 

In the first example above, the participial phrase is used to tell 
what particular lady is meant, and so it is not set off ; but the 
participial phrase in the second example can not be used for that 
purpose ; for the word yanefs has already told us what mother 
is meant. 

The adjectival phrase in the third example can not be restric- 
tive ; for Avhen ^ve have called the man we are talking- of, "the 
wicked Ahab," there can be no doubt as to what man is meant ; 
and so the phrase "confident of success" must be used merely to 
describe Ahab b^^ telling- us the condition he was in ^vhen he refused 
the prophet's counsel. So, also, with the adjectival phrase in 
the fourth example. It is used to add a thought concerning- the 
Golden -rods, and not to point out any particular ones. The sen- 
tence would mean nearly the same if it read, " The graceful Gold- 
en-rods that drooped from the bank were heavy with sunshine." 

Examples 5 and 6 contain each an ordinary adjective phrase. 
The first one can not restrict the subject ; for that is already as 
definite as it can be. " With all his "wisdom," therefore, must 
be used simply to mention a condition, notwitstanding- which, King- 
Solomon was led into idolatr5\ In the sixth example, however, 
the phrase, "with such a character," is used to tell what kind of 
king deserves contempt. It is therefore restrictive, and set off 
by the comma. 

The appositional phrase in the seventh example can not be 
restrictive, since Quito is a definite city, without any description, 
there being but one such place that could be meant in this sen- 
tence. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Sentence i. 

Lady is the Subject, and is cousin is the Predicate. 

Leaning over the balcony points out the lady here 
meant by describing her condition at the time. It is a participial 
phrase, restrictive, and therefore not set off. 

Over the balcony tells where she is leaning. It is an ad- 



Talks on Language. — No. lo. 6i 

verbial phrase, added to the participle learmig. 

Of the queen tells whose cousin is meant. It is an adjective 
phrase, added to the noun coiisiii. 

Sejitence j. 

Ahah is the Subject, and refused is the Predicate. 

Confident of success describes Ahab. It is an adjec- 
tival phrase, not restrictive, and therefore set off by the ccmma. 

Of success tells how he was confident. It is an adverbial 
phrase, added to the adjective confide7it. 

The prophefs counsel tells what Ahab refused. It is an 
objective element, added to the verb refused. 

Sentence 6. 

King is the Subject, and deserves is the Predicate. 

With such a character points out the kind of king here 
meant. It is an adjective phrase, restrictive, and therefore not 
set off. 

The co7itempt of his subjects tell what such a king deserves. 
It is an objective element, added to the verb deserves. 

Of his subjects tells whose contempt is here meant. It is an 
adjective phrase, added to the noun contempt ,' restrictive, and 
therefore not set off. 

Sentence 7. 

^uito is the Subject, and lies is the Predicate. 

The capital of Ecuador describes Quito. it is an ap- 
positional phrase, not restrictive, and therefore set off by the comma. 

Under the equator tells where the city lies. It is an adverb- 
ial phrase, added to the verb lies. 

Nearly is an adverb, added to the adverbial phrase under the 
equator to slightly vary the meaning of an expression which 
might otherwise be too positive. 

Note. — ^To set off a word or phrase is to separate it from all 
other parts of the sentence. If the element to be set off is at 
the beginning or at the close of a sentence, only one mark of 



62 Talks on Language. — No. lo. 

punctuation is required to set it off ; but if there are other words 
both before and after it, two marks will be needed. 

As used in the rules of punctuation, the expression "the 
comma" means that kind of ^tnark called the comma, w^hich may 
be repeated, of course, as often as required. 

General Examples. 

1. Leaving the island on our left, we sailed directly toward 
the mouth of the river. 

2. Shrilly cre\v the cock, answering- to the \vatch-dog's bay. 

3. Coasting along the shore, we soon came to a narrov;^ inlet, 
an arm of the sea extending to the mouth of a river. 

4. That peak with a cap of snow upon it is the highest point 
of the range. 

5. Firm in his purpose, the brave captain pressed resolutel}-- 
forward into the heart of the wilderness. 

6. That old man lying on the quarter deck is an African, a 
chief of an inland tribe. 

7. Dr. Livingstone, the pious vScotch missionary, became a 
famous explorer. 

8. With all his devotion, he was not able to satisfy his em- 
ployers. 

9. Saul journeyed to Damascus, the chief city of Syria. 

10. Before him stood the grim old fortress, frowning down 
from the heights above. 

11. The papers found in the old iron chest, were crumbled al- 
most to dust. 

12. Our Uncle Joseph was a generous man, well trained in the 
school of adversity. 

13. Suddenly the sun burst forth, flooding the forest with glory. 

14. A letter received this morning describes the death scene of 
our beloved missionary. 

15. The first island discovered by Columbus was named San 
Salvador. 

16. The carriage of the king, drawn by eight milk-white steeds, 
made a grand display. 



Talks on Language. — No. lo. 63 

LESSON 4b. 

1. What does the word adjective mean? 

2. When may any word, or group of words, be called an Ad- 
jective Element? 

3. AVhen is a word said to be added to a noun ? 

4. What may be said in reference to the relation of the pred- 
icate to its subject? 

5. Why may it be so reg-arded? 

6. Why is not the predicate commonly spoken of as being added 
to the subject? 

7. How may it be proved that the predicate is not wholly in- 
dependent? 

8. What does the relation of the subject and predicate in a 
sentence somewhat resemble? 

9. What have w^e seen that an adjective element may be? 

10. What else may be put in the same class? 

11. How do both the adjective and the participle describe the 
thing named by the noun? 

12. What constitutes still another kind of adjective element? 

13. What name may be given to a group consisting of a noun 
in apposition and the words that limit it? 

14. What may be found among adjective elements? 

15. Name the three kinds of words. 

16. Name the four kinds of phrases. 

17. Give an example of each. 

LESSON 4T. 

1. What may be said in general w^ith reference to the punc- 
tuation of adjective elements? 

2. When is the adjective element said to restrict the meaning 
of the noun? 

3. What do we mean by its restricting the meaning? 

4. What rule governs the punctuation of a restrictive adjective 
element ? 

5. How may we know when the adjective element is restrictive ? 



64 Talks on Language, — No, lo. 

6. When is an adjective element non -restrictive? 

7. How should a non restrictive adjective element be punctuated ? 
S. By what kind of mark is the adjective element generally 

set off? — By the comma. 

9. What question is to be considered in determining whether 
an element is restrictive or not? 

10. Show how the same, or similar, grovips of words may be re- 
strictive in one sentence and non -restrictive in another. 

11. What adjective elements are found in the iirst example on 
page 59? 

12. Why is not the participial phrase set off? 

13. Show why the participial phrase in the second sentence 
should be regarded as non -restrictive. 

14. What adjective group is found in the third sentence? 

15. How may we know whether it ought to be regarded as re- 
strictive or non -restrictive? 

16. Analyze the fourth sentence. 

LESSON 48. 

1. Analyze sentence 5, page 59. 

2. Parse Solomon and was led. 

3. Analyze sentences i and 3, on page 62. 

4. Parse crevj in ex. 2, and arm. in ex. 3. 

LESSON 4g. 

1. Analyze sentences 4, 5, 6, and 8, page 62. 

2. Parse the verbs in 4 and 5, and missiotiary in 7. 

3. Show the difference in the use of the phrases, vjith a cap 
of snow upon it and with all his devotion. 

LESSON so. 

1. Analyze sentences 10, 12, 14, and 16. 

2. Explain the punctuation of 2, 9, 13, and 15. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE— No. ii 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PARTICIPLES. 

Notice the participles in the foJloAving examples : — 

1. The ore dug- from that mine is rich in copper. 

2. The flag floating from the mast of that ship, was rescued 
from a pirate. 

In the first example, the ore here meant is described by the 
participial phrase dug from that mine ,' cin^ front that mine is an 
adverbial phrase telling whence the ore was dug. The ore is 
represented as receiving the act expressed by the participle. 

In the second example, the flag is described by the partici{)ial 
phrase fioatiyig from the mast of that ship. Floating denotes 
the action, and represents the flag as performing it. 

When the participle represents the thing described by it as 
recewiJig the action, it is called a Passive Participle ; but when 
it represents the thing described bj'^ it as performing the action, it 
is called an Active Participle. So dug is a passive participle, 
but floatijig is active. Sentences i, 2, 3, 6, 10, 13, on page 62, 
contain examples of active participles ; while sentences 11, 12, 14, 
15, 16, contain examples of passive participles. 

A participle is said to be present when its action takes place 
at the time denoted b}- the predicate of the clause in which the 
participle is found, whether that time be present, past, or future. 
Passive participles are almost always present, and so they may be 
parsed simply as passive, without saying anything about their be- 
ing present or past. 

The past active participle is much used in our language, but 
seldom, or never, alone. It is taken with some other word to 
make certain kinds of predicate. We will say no more about 
this participle for the present, but will explain it fully when we 
get farther on. 

These thoughts about present and past participles have been 
introduced here, so that we may give a complete form for parsing 



66 Talks on Language. — No. ii. 

participles. 

Participles are transitive or intransitive, like the verbs from 
which they are derived. "Being-" is the participle of the copula, 
and for convenience is called present active^ although it does not 
denote any action. 

Transitive participles are followed by objective elements, the 
same as transitive verbs. Passive participles are essentially 
transitive, since they denote action that is received by something ; 
but they can not, withoiit the aid of the copula, show that the 
subject receives the action. So we do not parse them as trans- 
itive, and in the passive voice ; but simply call them passive, and 
then tell what the)^ do. 

MODELS FOR PARSING PARTICIPLES. 

Ex. — O217' frail vessel, driven before the wind, soon struck the shoals. 

Driven is a participle, passive ; it is added to the noun ves- 
sel to assume an action received b}^ the vessel. 

Ex. — On came the serpent, raising his head in defiance. 

R/aising is a participle, present active, transitive ; it is added 
to the noun serpent to assume an action performed by the serpent. 

Head, i^ a noun, common, third per., sing, num., neu. gen. 
It is object of the participle raising, and therefore has the ordi- 
nary form. 

Ex. — Breaking through the hedge zve came in full sight of the ruins. 

Breaking is a participle, present active, transitive. It is 
added to the pronoun 7ue to assume an action performed by the 
speaker and those associated with himj. 

General Examples. 

1. Failing in his first endeavor, he relinquished the enterprise. 

2. Foiled in this attempt, he made more careful preparations 
for the next attack. 

3. Soaked by the recent rains, the soft soil made slight resist- 



Talks ox Language. — Xo. ii. 67 

ance to the wheels of our heavy \Yagons. 

4. He pressed through the ranks, burning for revenge. 

5. Clearing the wall at a single bound, the riderless steed 
dashed across the plain. 

6. Friendship is a sheltering tree. 

7. Great ripe nuts, kissed by the July sun, dropped into the 
little lap. 

S. The sharp cry of the panther, ringing through the forest, 
startled the child from her reverie. 

9. Starting to her feet, she quickly gazed around. 

10. Overpowered by a sense of her danger, she stood there under - 
the great oak, making no effort to escape. 

11. Crouching behind the huge trunk of a fallen tree, Hilgarth, 
the old hunter, cautiously placed his gun across the log. 

12. Intent on his victim, the fierce beast did not see the hunter. 

13. The gentle flowers, listening, heard the rumble of winter's 
car. 

14. AVe soon reached Cana, the scene of our Lord's first miracle. 

15. Before the close of the next day we came to Nazareth, the 
early home of Jesus. 

16. L'pon these hills he often walked at evening, viewing in 
the heavens those greater works of the Creator. 

17. The smooth river, flowing between bro^vn banks, is bor- 
dered by strips of green. 

iS. The stream is choked with black rocks, bristling out in every 
direction. 

19. Glad of any chance of escape, the diisky captive plunged 
into the rapid stream. 

20. Aiming at the panther's head, the hunter waited for a fa- 
vorable moment. 

LESSON SI. 

1. AVhat is the participial phrase in the first example given 
in this Talk? 

2. What does it describe? 



68 Talks on Language. — No. ii. 

3. By what is the participle itself limited? 

4. What is represented as receiving the action denoted by the 
participle ? 

5. What is the participial phrase in the second example, and 
what does it describe? 

6. What receives the action denoted \iy jioathig P 

7. When is a participle said to be passive? W^hen is it active? 

8. Select or compose four sentences each containing- a passive 
participle : and four, each containing an active participle. 

9. Analyze sentences 3 and 5 of the General Examples. 

LESSON 52, 

1. When is a participle said to be present? 

2. What kind of participles are almost always present? 
3 How, then, may they be parsed? 

4. What participle is much used in our language, but seldom, 
or never, used alone? 

5. How is it commonl}^ employed ? 

6. Why have these thoughts about present and past participles 
been introduced at this time? 

7. In ^vhat respect are participles like the verbs from which 
they are derived? 

8. What is the participle of the copula? 

9. Why is it commonly called "present active"? 

10. Why does it seem inconsistent to call it so? 

11. By what are transitive participles followed? 

12. W^hy are passive participles essentially transitive? 

13. What can they not do without the aid of the copula? 

14. For this reason, how do we parse them? 

15. Parse the participles and verbs in the first five sentences 
of the General Examples. 

LESSON 53. 

1. Parse is and tree in the sixth example. 

2. Analyze sentences 8, 10, and 11. 



Talks on Language. — No. ii. 69 

3. Parse the participles in 7, 8, 9, and 10. 

4. Explain the punctuation of 7, 9, and i3. 

LESSONS4. 

1. Explain the punctuation of sentences 14, 15, 17, and 19. 

2. Anal5^ze sentences 16, 18, and 20. 

3. Parse the verbs and participles in sentences 13, 17, and 20. 

LESSONsS- 
Punctuate the following- sentences correctly ; giving- a reason 
for every mark you use, and for striking out any mark that 3^ou 
think ought not to be used. 

1. With e5'es glaring like coals of fire the savage creature pre- 
pared for a spring upon the innocent child. 

2. Pierced between the eyes by a rifle ball the panther rolled 
to the ground. 

3. Our uncle careful of his words made a mild reply. 

4. The queen possessing naturally a very affectionate disposi- 
tion was extremely fond of children. 

5. The young queen standing up in her carriage extended her 
arms to the old woman. 

6. Where is the thatch -roofed village the home of Acadian 
farmers ? 

7. I saw another angel come down from heaven clothed with 
a cloud. 

8. Not far away we saw the port a strange old-fashioned town. 

9. Close by me stood the chair of coronation rudely carved of 
oak. 

10. The drawer contained the family library composed of half 
a dozen ^vell -thumbed volumes. 

11. His home was a cottage looking out on the dreary sea. 

12. The gold, obtained from that mine, is mixed with quartz. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 12. 



COORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

Words are said to be coordinate when they are in the same 
office. The coordinate words may be siibjects of the same verb, 
verbs with the same subject, adverbs limiting- the same verb, ad- 
jectives or participles limiting- the same noun, nouns in apposition 
^vith the same noun, objects of the same verb, or objects of the 
same preposition. 

Phrases and clauses may also be coordinate. Do not forget 
that coordinate phrases must be in the same office, and must limit 
the same Avord. 

We have a set of words Avhich we put between elements to 
show that they are coordinate. These words are called Coor- 
dinate Conjunctions. And^ biit^ o?', nor, and yet are the chief 
words employed for this purpose. They are said to join elements, 
because they show them to ba in the same office, and equal in rank. 
The coordinate conjunctions are all alike so far as this g-eneral use 
IS concerned, but each his a peculiar meaning of its own, besides 
that of showing that terms are coordinate. 

1. And inplies thit what is to follow it will be additional to 
what has g-one before, — thit it will be something more of the same 
sort, or somewhat akin to it. 

2. But implies that what is to follow will be apposed to what 
has gone before, or in some way adverse to it, in meaning. 

3. Tet s-aggests that what is to follow will be something that 
would not be expected from what has gone before. 

4. Or shows that the parts joined by it are to be considered 
separately. 

5. Nor is equivalent to and ?wt, and is generally used to pre- 
vent the repetition of a negative word. 

THE COUPLET AND SERIES. 

Two coordinate words or ])hrases make a Couplet, and three 
or more make a series. 



Talks on Language — No. 12. 7i 

The terms of a series are the words or phrases that are coor- 
dinate with each other. These terms are almost always separated 
from one another by some mark of punctuation, generally by the 
comma. 

The terms of a couplet are separated by the comma, — 

1. When the conjunction is emitted between them. 

2. AYhen the}^ are differently limited, althcvgh thty ma}^ be 
joined b^' the conjunction. 

3. When the second word is the srme as the first, or when it 
means the same thing-. 

4. W^hen the terms are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished. 

In most other cases the terms of a couplet need no mark be- 
tween them. 

Two or more adjectives or adjective phrases joined coordinately 
make Avhat is called a compound adjective element, and should be 
set off, as a whole, whenever it is not restrictive, just like all other 
adjective elements. The same is true of participles and participial 
phrases. 

Whenever the subject is a couplet or series of terms taken to- 
gether, the verb must be in the same form that would be required 
by a plural subject : as, " Luther and Marian are going to Europe ; " 
but if the terms of the subject are taken separately, the verb must 
take the form required by the one that stands next to it ; as, " Ever^^ 
man, w^oman, and child vjas saved ;" "Neither Caleb nor his sis- 
ters were invited." 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — ^^ Enoch Arden^'' and ^^ Idyls of the King^'' vjere both 
vji'itten by Teimyson. 

Enoch Arden and Idyls of the king are the Subjects, 
and were vjritte7i is the Predicate. 

By Te7inyso7i tells who wrote the poems. 



72 Talks on Language. — No. 12. 

Ex. — Weary from the hardships of the day, and f ami from 

the loss of blood, the young soldier wrapped himself in his blanket, 

earnestly wishing for darvn, and sadly 

lo7iging for home. 

Soldier is the Subject, and wrapped is the Predicate. 

Weary fro^n the hardships of the day, and faint from the loss 
of blood, describes the young- soldier ; it is an adjective element, 
not restrictive, and therefore set off by the comma. 

Weary and faint are a couplet of adjectives, differently limited, 
and therefore separated by the comma. 

From the hardships of the day is an adverbial phrase, added 
to the adjective weary to tell the cause of his ^vearlness. 

Of the day describes, or points out, the hardships here meant. 
It is an adjective element, restrictive, and therefore not set off. 

From the loss of blood is an adverbial phrase, added to the 
adjective faint to tell the cause. 

Earnestly wishing for daiv7i, and sadly longing for home, 
also describes the soldier here meant ; it is an adjective element 
not restrictive, and therefore set off by the comma. Wishing and 

longing are a couplet of participles, differently limited, and there- 
fore separated by the comma. 

In his blanket is an adverbial phrase added to the verb wrapped 
to tell how. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — He wandered through forest, glade, and glen. 

And IS a conjunction, coordinate ; it is said to join forest, 
glade, and glen, because it shows them to be in the same office. 
They are all objects of the preposition through. 

General Examples. 

1. Mountain and headland were reflected on the bosom of the 
lake. 

2. We crossed the stream and entered the forest. 



™ 



Talks on I.axguage. — No. 12. 73 

3. The sun gives light and heat. 

4. Long and well the chieftain fought. 

5. The twilight deepened and darkened around. 

6. I behold the shadowy crown of the dark and haunted wood. 

7. He cursed their wine, and oil, and l^read. 

S. Its chimneys were huge, and tiled, and tall. 
9. The great oaks threw tangles of light and shade on roofs 
and doors and window-sills. 

10. Round this old-fashioned, quaint abode, deep silence reigned. 

11. He was a thoughtful 5^outh, a student of old books and days. 

12. The}^ wandered in deserts, and in mountains, and in dens, 
and in caves of the earth. 

13. The grass is still verdant on the hills and in the valleys. 

14. On bright streams and into deep wells shone the high mid- 
summer sun. 

15. He reached the farthest vvigwam, reached the lodge of 
Hiawatha. 

16. "Water, pure and cold, is the most healthful drink that can 
be found. 

17. Cheerfulh-, buoyantly, the little birds flit from tree to tree. 

18. Flowers have habits, or v/ays of acting, just as people have. 

19. Slowly, silently, was the murderer's knife raised to strike 
the fatal blow. 

20. There the old oak, black and blasted, 
Trembled on his knotty knees. 

21. There beneath the w^eeping willows 
Lay the graveyard, hushed and still. 

22. Here I see the hilly places^ 
'With the sheep -paths trod across. 

23. Safel3% safely bring them to the fold. 

24. They saw the snow^ -cloud on the sky, 
With its rough and ragged edge. 

25. Oft she paused at the wandow^ side, 
And looked out on the night. 



74 Talks on Language. — No. 12. 

26. Now I see them throug-h the twilight, 
Sitting- by my "window here, 

All the woodlands, dim and dusky, 
All the fields of waving- grain. 

27. Hung-er and cold and scorn and pain 

Had \vasted his form and seared his brain. 
2S. Friendless, homeless, hopeless, the^'- wandered from city to 
cit5\ 

29. It rose above the graves on the hill, 
Lonely, and spectral, and somber, and still. 

30. He wandered along the sea-shore and among the mountains, 

LESSON- ^6. 

1. When are words said to be coordinate? 

2. In ^vhat office may these coordinate words be found ? 

3. What must be kept in mind with reference to coordinate 
phrases ? 

4. How do we show that elements are coordinate? 
1;. What are the chief words employed in this way? 

6. Why are they said to Join elements ? 

7. In ^vhat respect are these coordinate conjunctions alike ? 

8. In what are they different? 

9. What does a7td imply? But ^ 

10. What does yet suggest? 

11. What does or show? 

12. To what is nor equivalent? 

13. For what is it generally used? 

14. Find sentences thit have two or more predicates. 

15. Find sentences that have tv/o or more subjects. 

16. In what office are the coordinate words in the first sentence 
of the General Examples? In the second sentence? The third? 
Fourth? Fifth? 

17. Find sentences that have two or more objects to one prep- 
osition. Two or more objects to one verb. 



Talks ox Language. — No. 12. 75 

LESSON^y. 

1. What is a couplet? A series? 

2. What is meant by the terms of the couplet or a series? 

3. How is a series commonly punctuated? 

4. When are the terms of a couplet separated by the comma? 

5. When two or more adjectives or adjective phrases are joined 
coord inately, what do they constitute? 

6. Ho\v should such elements be punctuated? 

7. What form does the verb take when the subject is a coup- 
let or a series? 

8. Analyze the first five sentences of the General Examples. 

9. Parse the conjunctions in the same. 

LESSON 58. 

1. How many subjects has the first sentence of the General 
Examples? 

2. How many phrases in the sentence, and what does each of 
them do? 

3. Parse the verbs in sentences i, 2, 3, 6, and 8. 

9. What is described by the couplet in sentence 6? 

10. In what kind of group is this couplet found? 

11. How many coordinate terms are found in sentence 7? 

12. What do they constitute? 

13. In what office are they? 

14. Analyze sentences 8, 9, and 10. 

LESSON sq. 

1. Analyze sentence 11. 

2. Parse ail the words in the appositional phrase. 

3. Analyze sentences 13 and 14. 

4. Explain the punctuation of 12, 15, and 16. 

LESSON bo, 

1. Analyze sentences 17, 21, and 24. 

2. Explain the punctuation of 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, and 25. 

3. Parse the conjunctions in 18, 20, and 25. 



1 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 13. 



RECAPITULATION. 

It mav be Avell now to look over the ground, and see what 
we have learned. 

1. Ail names are called nouns ; words added to nouns to show 
the quality, kind, or condition, of the thing named by the noun, 
are called qualif],dng adjectives ; and those added to tell what ones 
or which ones are meant, are called limiting adjectives. Words 
that take the place of nouns are called pronouns. Action-Avords 
are called verbs and participles ; and the words added to them to 
te]l whv, when, how, or Avhere, are adverbs. Relation -Avords 
are called either prepositions or conjunctions ; and Avords that 
denote nothing but emotion are interjections. 

2. A common noun names any one of a class, applying to one 
as AA'ell as to another ; and by being put in the plural number it may 
name any two or more of a class. A proper noun naines a par- 
ticular individual of a class, and can name no other. 

All proper nouns begin Avith a capital letter, AA'hile most com- 
mon nouns begin with a small letter. In proper nouns that con- 
sist of more than one Avord, the chief Avords take the capital initial, 
Avhile the short, vmimportant ones begin Avith a small letter. Some 
common nouns begin AA'ith a capital, such as names of political par- 
ties, religious sects, and tribes or races of men. The names of 
the months, and the days of the A\^eek, also take the capital initial. 

The name of a single thing is said to be in the singular num- 
ber, AA^hile a noun that is so changed as to name tAA^o or more 
things of the same class is in the plural number. The plural of 
nouns is commonh^ formed by adding .v to the singular ; but Avhen 
the last sound of the singular noun Avill not unite AA^th the sound 
of s, the syllable es must be added. When a noun ends in o, 
AAath a consonant just before it, es is added to form the plural ; 
and Avhen a noun ends in jy, with a consonant just before it, the 
jy must be changed to t'e before adding the .<;•. A feAA' nouns 
change final / to re before adding 6-. 



77 Talks on Language. — No. 13. 

Some nouns do not distinguish sex. Those that do, are called 
gender nouns. Names of males are in the niasadiiie gender, 
names of females are in the feminine gender, and names of things 
that have no sex are in the neiiter gender. When the same noun 
applies to both sexes, we simply say that it does not distinguish 
sex. The distinction between the masculine gender and the fem- 
inine is commonly made by giving the words a different ending ; 
but sometimes a word is prefixed or added, and sometimes an 
entirely different word is used. 

3. Groups of words called sejitences are used to make state- 
77zents, ask giiestions, or gire ccmmands. The word or words 
that make the statement, ask the question, or give the command, 
are called the predicate ^ while the word that names the thing 
concerning which the statement is made is called the subject. Every 
sentence must have a subject and a predicate, either expressed or 
clearly understood. 

When we wish to predicate that a thing has a certain quality, 
we use a qualif^dng adjective in the predicate, putting some form 
of the verb To Be before it, to give it the power of predication. 
Wlun ihe verb To I5e is used in this way, it is called a copula. 
When we wish to predicate an action of a thing, we may put an ac- 
tion-word in the predicate after the copula, or we may use an 
action- word that has the power of predication in itself. 

4. To allude to the speaker, the person to whom we speak, or to 
some person or thing that has just been named, we use a class 
of words called pronouns. 

A noun or a pronoun that denotes the speaker is said to be 
in the first person ; one that denotes the person spoken to, is in 
the second person; and one that denotes the person or thing 
spoken of, is in the third person. 

Pronouns have number and gender, the same as nouns, but 
do not show these distinctions by tlie same changes of form. They 
do not distinguish sex, except in the third person, singular number. 

5. Sometimes groups of words, called phrases, are used to do 



Talks on Language.— No. 13. 78 

the work of adjectives or adverbs. Such a phrase usually consists 
of a noun, and a word to show the relation of the noun to the 
word which the phrase limits. The relation-word is called a 
preposition, and the noun that follows it is said to be the object of 
the preposition, 

vSome verbs are followed by a noun naming- the thing that 
receives the action denoted by the verb. Such a noun is called 
the object of the verb whose action it receives. 

A noun is often used to name the owner of a thing, or to 
name the author, the source, the one to whose use a thing is adapted, 
etc. When a noun is used in this waj^, it changes its form by 
adding the apostrophe and .^. A plural noun that ends in .? adds 
the apostrophe only. 

Thus we see that a noun has two forms,— the ordinary form, 
and HiQ possessive form, sometimes called the possessive case. 

The possessive form is taken whenever we wish to tell rvhose, 
etc., and the ordinary form is employed for all other uses. 

The pronoun has three forms, — the subjective, or nominative, 
foi-m ; the possessive ; and the objective. 

The subjective form is the one to be used as the subject oj a 
sentence / with the copula in the predicate ,' or in apposition with 
any noun or pronoun so used. The possessive form is used the 
same as the possessive form of nouns. The objective form is 
used as the object of a preposition ; as the object of a verb ; or in 
apposition with any noun or pronoun so used. 

The table beloAv shows the forms of the simple personal pro- 
nouns. By noticing this table, it will be seen that pronouns do not 
form the possessive in the same way that nouns do. Be careful 
never to use the apostrophe or apostrophe and ,9 in making the pos- 
sessive form of a pronoun. 

It is very important that these pronouns should be used cor- 
rectly. A large share of the grammatical errors in language are 
made by using the wrong form of the pronoun. Be especially 
careful about the pronoun used wdth the copula to make the pred- 



79 



Talks on Language. — No. 13. 
First Person. 





Su 


BjECTivE. Possessive. 


Objective. 


Sing, Num. 




I My or mine 


Me 


Plv. " 




We Our or ours 

Second Person. 


Us 






Sub. Poss. 


Obj. 


Sing. N. 




You Your or yours 


You 


Plu. N. 




You Your or yours 

Third Person. 


You 


Sub. 




Poss. 


Obj. 


Alas. Fem. 


Neu. Mas. Fem. Neu. 


Mas. Fem. N. 


S. He She 


It 


His Her or hers Its 


Him Her It 



Plu. They 



Their or theirs 



Them 



The Bible and other ancient books are written in what is 
called the grave, or solemn, style. The same mode of writing- 
often prevails in sacred and emotional poetry. In the second per - 
son, solemn style, some of th:i pronouns differ in form from the 
corresponding ones of the common style, as may be seen from the 
table below. 

Second Person.— ^^/^'«'^ Style. 

Sub. Poss. Obj. 



Sing. N. 
Plu. N. 



Thou 
Ye 



Thy or thine 
Your or yours 



Thee 
You 



6. A verb is regular when it forms its past tense by adding 
ed to its present tense, and irregular when it forms its past tense 
in any other Avay. 

The verb To Be is not always a copula ; but only when it 
gives power of predication to a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, or 
a participle, that follows it in the predicate. Whenever it con- 
stitutes the entire predicate, it predicates mere state or existence, 



Talks on Language. — No. 13. 80 

and becomes an iiitrafisitive verb. 

The intransitive verb may predicate action, state, or existence ; 
but Avhen it predicates action, it does not represent that action as 
being received b}^ an^'thing-. 

The transitive verb always predicates action of some kind, and 
always represents that action as being- received by soinething-, or 
extending- to something-. When the subject receives the action, 
the verb is in the passive voice ; but when the subject performs 
the action, and something else receives it, the verb is in the active 
voice. Remember, then, that none but transitive verbs have voice, 

AVhenever a verb makes a statement or asks a question, it is 
said to be in the indicative mode ; but when it commands, exhorts, 
or entreats, it is in the imperative mode. 

Ordinar}' verbs add s^ in the present tense, whenever they 
have a subject in the third person, singular number. In the past 
tense, however, they do not have any such change, but retain the 
same form, no matter what the subject may be. The verb To 
Be is an exception to this rule ; for it has three forms in the 
present tense, and two in the past. In the present tense it is 
am, with a subject in the first person, and singular number ; is 
with one in the third, singular ; and are with any other subject. 
In the past tense, it is vjas, with a subject in the first or third, 
singular ; and 7': ere with any other subject. 

In the solemn style, thou, as subject, requires the verb to end 
in t, st, or est. 

7. Whenever we wish to predicate the identity of a person or 
place, or when we %vish to predicate that a person or a thing be- 
longs to a certain class, we use a noun with the copula to form 
the predicate. 

For identity, we use the proper name of the person or place 
to be identified ; while for predicating class, we use the name of 
the class to which the subject belongs. 

When the class or identity is to be assumed instead of being 
predicated, we use the noun without any copula before it. This 



8i Talks on Language. — No. 13. 

g-ives a case of what is called apposition proper, while the former 
is what may be termed predicated apposition. A pronoun used 
with the copula to form the predicate must always be in the sub- 
jective form. If this rule were carefully observed, many errors 
would be avoided. 

A noun or pronoun added to another noun or pronoun to de - 
scribe or identify the thing represented by that noun or pronoun 
must take the same form as the noun or pronoun to which it is 
added. This, of course, is a case of apposiiiofi proper. Great 
care should be taken to employ the right form of the pronoun in all 
its different uses. 

S. Both the verb and the participle denote action^ being, or 
stated but while the verb predicates whatever is denotes, the 
participle has no power to do so, without the aid of the copula. 
The participle, like the verb, not only denotes action, but may be 
limited by adverbial words or phrases ; yet it is like the adjective 
in being added to nouns. 

A participle is passive when the thing described by it receives 
the action, and active when the thing described by it performs the 
action. 

A participle is present, when its action takes place at the same 
time as that of the verb in the clause where it is found. 

A participle with its limitations makes ?i participial phrase ; an 
adjective with its limitations makes an adjectival phrase ,' and a 
noun in apposition, taken with its limitations, makes an apposi- 
tional phrase. 

All these kinds of phrases are classed as adjective eleme7its be 
cause they are used to describe the things represented by nouns and 
pronouns. 

Any adjective element, whether a single word or a group of 
words, must be set off by the comma whenever it is not restrictive ,* 
but when restrictive it is not usually set off. An element is re- 
strictive when it is used expressly to limit the application of its 
noun to a particular individual, or a particular class. 



Talks ox Lajiguage. — Xo. 13. 82 

9. Coordinate elements are those that are equal in rank, and 
in the same office if subordinate. Elements are shown to be 
subordinate by the use of coordinate conjunctions. The chief of 
these are and, hut, or, nor, and yet. They all have the same 
g-eneral use, but each has a special signification of its own. 

A group of two coordinate elements is called a couplet, while 
one of three or more, is called a series. Ihe terms of a series 
are separated by the ccmma, unless the conjunction is used be- 
tween the terms throughout, and even then, except when it is de- 
sirable to have the mind grasp all the terms before stopping to 
consider them separately, or when the use of the comma would 
weaken the force of other commas in the sentence. 

The terms of the couplet are to be separated by the comma 
whenever they have no conjunction between them ; when they 
are differently limited ; w hen they are to be emphatically distin- 
guished ; and when they are the same word repeated, or are but 
different words meaning the same thing. 

Under seme conditions, coordinate terms should be separated 
by the semicolon, as will be seen hereafter. 

LESSON bi. 

1. What words are called nouns? Qualif^nng adjectives? 
Limiting adjectives? Pronoims? 

2. How are action-words classified? and what are adverbs? 

3. What are relation -words called? 

4. What are interjections? 

5. Describe a common noun : a proper noun. 

6. What words should have a capital initial? 

7. What nouns are singular? What ones are plural? 

8. How^ is the plural of nouns formed? 

9. Describe the genders. 

10. What do we say of nouns or pronouns that applv to either 
or both sexes? 

11. How do we make the distinction between the masculine 
gender and the feminine? 



S3 Taj.ks on Language. — No. 13. 

12. What are sentences? 

13. AYhat part of a sentence is called the predicate? The sub- 
ject? 

14. How do we predicate that a thing has a certain quality? 

15. What do we call the word To Be when it is used in this 
way? 

16. How may we predicate action of a thing? 

17. For what do we use pronouns? 

iS. When is a noun or pronoun in the first person? Second? 
Third ? 

19. With respect to number and gender, how do pronouns dif- 
fer from nouns? 

LESSON b2. 

1. What are sometimes used to do the work of adjectives and 
adverbs ? 

2. Of what does such a phrase usually consist? 

3. What is each of these parts called? 

4. "When is a noun called the object of a verb? 

5. In what uses must a noun take the possessive sign? 

6. Of what does this sign consist? 

7. What forms has the pronoun, and when should each be used ? 
S. What are these forms sometimes called? — Cases, 

9. When should us be used ? My ? Her ? They P I'on / 
Them ? 

10. When should mine be used instead of my ,' ours instead of 
our; yours instead oi. your, etc.? — When the nou?i they limit is 
not expressed. 

11. Where, and how, does the solemn style differ from the com- 
mon? 

12. In what \vritings is the solemn style used? 

13. How do pronouns differ from nouns, with respect to their 
possessive case? 

LESSON bj. 

1. When is a verb regular, and when irregular? 

2. When is the verb To Be a copula? When is it intransitive? 

3. What distinguishes the transitive verb? The intransitive? 



Talks ox Laxguage. — Xo. 13. 84 

4. When is a verb in the active voice? AVhen in the passive? 

5. What is the only kind of verb that has voice? 

6. AVhen is a verb in the imperative mode? When in the 
Hidicative? 

7. In ordinary verbs, what change is made for the person and 
number of the subject? 

S. What changes are made in the verb To Be? 
9. When do we use a noun with the copula to form the predi- 
cate ? 

10. What noun do w^e use for predicating identity? Class? 
IT. What do we do when we wish to assume the class or iden- 
tity instead of predicating it? 

12. Of what does this give a case? 

13. What form of the prcnor.n must be used with the copula 
to form the predicate? What in apposition proper? 

LESSOJV 64. 

1. What do both the verb and the participle denote? 

2. In what do they differ? 

3. Ho^v may participles be limited? To what are they added? 

4. When is a participle active? When is it passive? When 
present? 

5. What is a participial phrase? An adjectival phrase? An 
appositional phrase? Give examples. 

6. Ho^v is the ordinary adjective phrase formed? 

7. Why are these four kinds of phrases called adjective ele- 
ments ? 

S. Plow should all adjective elements be punctuated? Find 
examples. 

LESSON 6s. 

1. What are coordinate elements? 

2. How are they shown to be coordinate? 

3. What are the chief of these? and w^hat may be said of their use? 

4. What is a couplet? A series? 

5. What should separate the terms of a series ? What exception ? 

6. When should the terms of a couplet be separated ? 

7. Explain the punctuation of examples 26 to 30, on page 74, 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE— No. 14. 



ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN. 

The noun is often omitted after an adjective, or after a noun 
or pronoun in the possessive case. This is called an ellipsis of 
the noun. The noun should never be dropped out in this w^ay 
unless the meaning- is just as clear without it. It must be easy 
for the mind to supply the noun understood. If one should say, 
'* Many were returned, but mine was accepted," the meaning would 
not be clear, unless something had gone before that would show 
what w^as rejected ; but if the speaker had just been talking about 
essays written for a prize, the sentence would be easily understood 
and entirely proper. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Many is an adjective, limiting ; added to a noun understood, 
to tell indefinitely how many. 

Mine is a pronoun, personal, first person, singular number ; it 
does not distinguish sex. By alluding to the speaker, it tells to 
whom the thing belongs that would be named by the noun under- 
stood, and is therefore put in the possessive form. 

The peculiarities of some of the adjectives that limit nouns 
understood, will be noticed hereafter. 

NOUNS INDEPENDENT BY ADDRESS. 

We sometimes speak the name of the person to whom we are 
talking, in order to give earnestness or familiarity to what we are 
saying, to gain the attention of the person addressed, or to show 
which one we are speaking to, when several are present. 

Ex.— I must differ with you, Frances. Helen, your bird is 
dead. Caleb, you may leave the class. 

A noun in the oflSce desciibed above, is said to be independent 
by address ; for it is used in addressing a person, and has no 
part in bringing out the thought of the sentence. 



Talks ox Language. —Xc. i.|. 86 

A noun independent by address, taken with the words that 
limit it, makes what is allied a Vocative Phrase. Vocative is 

from a Latin word that means "to speak to," or "to call." A 
vocative phrase should be set off by the comma. 

Inanimate objects, that is, things that have no life, are some- 
times spoken to as though they could understand, and think, and 
feel, like human beings. Objects so addressed are said to be 
fei'soiiified. 

The vocative noun is often accompanied by a word that ex- 
presses deep feeling, or a sudden outburst of passion. A ^vord 
used wholly to express emotion is called an Literjection. 

Ex.— O my father! leave me not alone. Ah, brother, we sigh 
for them in vain! 

The interjection is often used where no vocative noun occurs 
as, O, where shall rest he foinid f What! are these my guests ? 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — Ah, my lord ! your attempt is vain. 

All is an interjection ; for it is a word used wholly to express 
emotion. Since it has no part in bringing out the thought of the 
sentence, it is said to be independent. 

Lord, is a novm, cominon, second person, sing, n., masc. g. ; 
independent b}^ address, and therefore put in the ordinary form 
{Nominative Case). 

An interjection should be followed by an exclamatioji point, 
when it is emphatic, and but slightly connected with what follows ; 
by a comma, when not emphatic, but requiring a pause after it ; 
and by no foint, whenever it is so closely connected with what 
follows as to admit of no pause between. In the last instance, 
it becomes a part of an exclamatory expression that has the ex- 
clamation point at its close. 



S7 Talks on Language. — No. 14. 

ADVERBIAL PHRASE WITHOUT A 
PREPOSITION. 

The adverbial phrase is frequenth' used witliout a preposition. 
It is sometimes difficult to supply the ellipsis, since it is hard to 
find a word exactly suited to the place ; yet the relation is \vell 
enough understood, and is very similar to that expressed by prep- 
ositions in constant use. 

Ex. — The ship was expected last week. The general 
died this morning. 

In each of the above examples the relation imderstood is similar 
to that expressed b}' /;/, on, or during-. Exchange this for the^ 
in the last example, and in seems all right for the preposition ; 
or I ma}^ properly say, "On the morning of my arrival, I was 
greeted by a delegation from the queen." In all these instances 
the relation is really the same. 

COMPARISON INTRODUCED BY LIKE. 

A VIVID conception of a thing is often given by comparing it 
to something well known to our hearers. Such comparisons are 
not unfrequently introduced by the word like. 

Ex. — Through woods and mountain passes. 
The winds, like anthems, roll. 
Such a comparison is called a figure of Simile. 
Illustrative Examples. 

1. Next day the billows frothed like yeast. 

2. My friend goes home to-morrow. 

3. Our train ran fifty miles an hour. 

4. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles wide. 

Remarks.— In th2 first example, billows and yeast are com- 
pared with reference to the act of frothing. Like introduces the 
comparison, and yeast completes it. 

In the second example, home tells where my friend goes, and 
to-morrovj tells when. They are both nouns, objects of a prep- 
osition understood. 



Talks on Language. — No, 14. 8S 

In the third example, _/?/?;/ miles and 077 hour are both adverbial 
phrases ; the first tells how far the train runs, and the second, 
how long it takes to run that distance. Miles and hour are ob- 
jects of a preposition understood. 

In the fourth example, is wide is the predicate, and three thou- 
sand miles is a phrase telling how wide. Miles is the object of 
a preposition understood ; three thousajid, as a group, is an ad- 
jective element, but thousand taken alone is a noun, naming one 
of the great orders of numbers, and three is an adjective limiting it. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Day is a noun, com., 3d, sing., neut., obj. of a prep, under- 
stood. 

Like is a preposition ; it shows the relation between the 
yeast and the frothing of the billows. 

General Examples. 

1. Among the passengers but few were saved. 

2. This is the saddest month of the year. 

3. By mistake I took your hat and left mine. 

4. None but yours were approved. 

5. These and many more with king Olaf sailed the seas. 

6. Many run well for a season. 

7. I feel his icy fingers, clasping mine amid the darkness. 

8. Ours was the fastest boat on the lake. 

9. One came last evening. 

ID. The other is expected to-day. 

11. England, with all thy faults, T love thee still. 

12. Fear not, O little flock. 

13. Night sank upon the dusky beach and on the purple sea. 

14. O gentle, gentle summer rain! come thou, brim the meadow 
streams. 

15. Come, O faUing dew! and soften all the hills with mist. 

16. A solemn fear on the listening crowd 
Fell like the shadow of a cloud. 



^9 Talks on Language.— No. 14. 

17. The Lake of the Woods is a hundred miles long. 
iS. Stand out, my blue -eyed prophet. 

19. Like a demon of the night he passed, and vanished from 
my sight. 

20. Hear the children weeping, O my brothers ! 

21. Have a care for the feelings of others. 

22. They stood there on the meadow, wildly glaring at each 
other. 

23. I lifted my hand, and saw the slender fingers, thin and 
Avhite. 

24. The vast Basilica, the Vatican, the Pantheon, and the lofty 
column of Antoninus, were glowing in the rays of the morning 
sunlight. 

LESSON 66. 

1. In what instances is the noun often omitted? 

2. AVhat is this omission called? 

3. What caution should be observed in the ellipsis of the noun ? 

4. Parse fevj in the first sentence of the General Examples ; 
i/ns in the second sentence ; and none and yours in the fourth. 

5. For What purposes do we sometimes speak the name of 
the person to whom we are talking? 

6. Illustrate by examples. 

7. Why is a noun so used said to be independent by address ? 

8. What name may be given to a group consisting of a noun 
independent by address and the words that limit it? 

9. Explain the word "vocative." 

10. How do we punctuate such a phrase as we have just been 
describing ? 

11. When are things said to be personified? 

12. Parse Efio- land in sentence 11. 

LESSO2V 67. 

1. What often accompanies a noun independent by address? 

2. What do we call a word that is used wholly to express 



Talks on I-anguage.— No. 14. 90 

emotion? 

3. Is the interjection alwa3's used in connection with a vocative 
noun ? 

4. How should the interjection be punctuated? 

5. Parse the interjections and the vocative nouns in examples 
ii2 and 14. 

6.. Give examples of adverbial phrases without a preposition. 
7. Can the preposition be supplied in all such cases? 
S. How may we sometimes give a vivid conception of an object 
or an action? 

9. What is such a comparison called? 

10. Bj^ what is such a comparison frequently introduced ? Give 
examples. 

11. Parse the adjectives and the noun in sentence 9. 

12. Anah'ze sentence 16, and parse ^// and li^e. 

LESSON 68, 

1. Parse the pronouns in sentence 3. 

2. Analyze sentences 5 and 7. 

3. Parse these and otke?-,. 

4. Analyze 13;, 17, and 22. 

5. Explain the punctuation of 12, 14, 15, iS, 19, 20, 23, and 24. 

LESSONS 6g d- 70. 

^'rite a composition of not less than thirty lines nor more 
than fiftv.. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE. -No. 15. 



CLAUSES. 

Two or more statements are often combined in one sentence. 
Each statement in such a sentence is called a clause. 

Examples. 

1. Ellen studies her lesson, but Geoige is idle. 

2. Some flowers close their petals when the sun goes down. 

3. The stranger who came last evening is brother to Colonel 
Grant. 

In the first example above, the two clauses are of equal im- 
portance ; they are both principal cJauses ; neither of them limits 
any word in the other ; and either would make a sentence if taken 
alone. 

In the second example, the claiise, " When the sun goes down," 
Limits the verb close ; it is an adverbial element used to tell when 
the action is done. It is a clause, because it has a subject and 
a predicate. It is a subordinate clause, because it limits another 
word ; it would not make a sentence if it stood alone. 

In the third example, the second clause tells what stranger is 
meant. It does the work of an adjective, and so it is called an 
adjective clause. It comes in between the subject and predicate 
of the principal clause so that it may stand next to the word which 
it limits. 

A sentence that has two or more principal clauses, and no 
subordinate ones, is called a Compound Sentence. A sentence 
that has a subordinate clause in it, is called a Complex Sentence. 
A subordinate clause is one that limits some word in another clause. 
All adjective or adverbial elements are subordinate, because they 
are of a lower order, or rank, than the word they limit, just as 
the servant is of a lower rank than the master he serves. 

Clauses, like words and phrases, are joined by coordinate con- 
junctions whenever they are of the same rank, and do the same 
work in a sentence ; but couplets and series of clauses are not 



Talks ox I.axguage. — Xo. 15. 92 

imnctuated by the same rules as are those consisting of words or 
phrases. 

The principal clauses of a sentence, whether two, or more than 
two, are alwavs to be separated by some mark. The}' are sep- 
arated bv the comma when closely related in thought, especially 
if joined bv a conjunction, and not divided into smaller portions 
by the comma. 

The principal clauses of a sentence are separated by a semi- 
colon when they are not ver}- closely related in sense, especially 
if they have no conjunction between them. They are also sep- 
arated by the semicolon when they are, one or more of them, 
divided into somewhat important parts b}- the comma, unless the 
relation of the thought is very close. 

The principal clauses of a sentence are separated by the colrn 
when thev are themselves separated into important divisions by 
ihe semicolon ; or when they are very remotely related m thought, 
vet too closelv joined to be put in separate sentences. 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

The first word of an adverbial clause tells us at once what is 
to be the nature and use of the group which it introduces. Whei-e 

indicates that the clause will be an adverb of place ; zvheii, vjliile. 
before, after, till or ufitil, are used when the clause denotes time ; 
because, since, wherefore^ when the clause denotes cause or purpose ; 
as sometimes indicates time, and sometimes manner ; since fre- 
quently denotes time instead of cause. If, though, and tuiless 
are emplo^-ed to introduce conditional clauses; as, "Come early 
if you want assistance." 

Notice the use of these conjunctions in the examples that follow. 
Conjunctions that introduce adverbial clauses are said to be Sub- 
ordinate. 



MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 



Ex. — He raised his hand, and the courtier bozved to the earth. 
This sentence consists of two principal clauses. And shows 



93 Talks on Language. — No. 15. 

that the clavises are equal in rank. 

Since the}- are closeh' related in thought, and have a conjunction 
between them, a comma is all that is needed to separate them. 

He is the subject of the first clause, and raised is the predicate, 
etc. 

Coiii'iie7' is the subject of the second clause, and bowed is the 
predicate. 

His head tells what he bowed, and to the ground tells where 
he bowed it. 

Kx,— When u>e came to the spot, the jlames were hursti7ig from 
the zvindovjs of the beautiful villa. 

Flames is the subject of this sentence, and xvere bursti7ig is 
the predicate. 

M^hen zve arrived at the spot tells when the flames were burst- 
ing out. It is an adverbial clause, added to the verb were burst- 
ing ^ and since it comes before the verb it limits, it is set off by 
the comma. 

When introduces the clause, and indicates its use ; we is the 
subject, and arrived is the predicate. 

At the spot tells where we arrived ; it is an adverbial phrase, 
added to the verb ai'rived. 

From the windows of the villa tells where the flames were 
bursting out ; it is an adverbial phrase, added to the verb vjere burst- 
ing. 

Of the villa tells what windows are meant ; it is an adjective 
phrase, added to the noun windozus. 

By noticing the models it will be seen that the first thing to 
do in analyzing a compound sentence is to tell how many principal 
clauses it has, and then explain the punctuation so far as it relates 
to the mark that should separate the clauses. After this, we 
proceed to analyze each clause by itself, just as though it were a 
separate sentence. 

In analyzing a complex sentence, we do not tell how many 
clauses in the sentence, unless the sentence is both compound and 



Talks on Language. — No. 15. 94 

complex, and even then ^ve do not speak of the subordinate clauses 
until they come in as limiting elements, the same as adjective or 
adverbial phrases. 

In analyzing an adverbial clause, we first tell hoAv it is used 
as a whole, and then tell whether it should be set off or not, and 
why. The next thing is to tell how the clause is introduced, 
and after that to give the subject and predicate, and complete the 
analysis just as though the clause were a principal one. 

Adverbial clauses should be set off by the comma, when they 
come before the word the}- limit, or when they are not very closely 
related in thought to that word. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Ex.- — We folio-wed till dai'kness cut off our piirstiit. 
Till is a conjunction, subordinate ; it shows its clause to be 
an adverb of time. 

General Examples. 

1. The morning was cool, and we started on our journev be- 
fore sunrise. 

2. The train left before the stage arrived. 

3. The rains descended, and the floods came. 

4. While ^ve "waited, the storm-cloud rolled away. 

5. The onset was furious, but the veterans withstood the shock 
like a wall of granite. 

O. As I look and listen, the sadness wears, awa\\ 

7. The boughs in the morning wind are stirred, and the woods 
their songs rene^v. 

8. Flowers peep from the ground where'er T pass. 

9. The cheerful rivulet sang and gossiped as it hastened ocean- 
waid. 

10. Many are called, but few are chosen. 

11. The oflScers searched for days, yet they found no trace of 
the thief. 

12. Richard surveyed the Nubian in silence, as he stood before 
him. 



95 Talks on Language. — No. 15. 

13. Neville withdrcAV, and the king %vas soon absorbed in his 
letters. 

14. Beside a pleasant dwelling- ran a brook, scudding along a 
narrow channel, and paved with green and yellow pebbles. 

15. A maiden oft stood at the open window, leaning out, and 
listening to the sound of the waters. 

16. When the herbs of summer drooped beneath the mid -day 
sun, she sat within the shade of a great rock, dreamily listening 
to the streamlet's song. 

77. Dark clouds overshadowed the sky, showers of mist ^vere 
driven through the air, and the branches of the trees sw^a^'^ed be- 
fore the storm. 

iS. Surrounding himself with a retinue of spendthrift gentle- 
men, he endeavored to dazzle the Austrian capital. 

19. She took my hand, and darting through the waves, brought 
me at length to the mouth of our dear mountain brook. 

20, She looked at them with those mild eyes, and wept; but 
said no word in answer. 

2T. A long, still sadness settled on that home among the moun- 
tains. 

22. And far was wafted o'er the isle the fragrant smoke of 
cloven cedar, burning in the flame, 

23. He spake, and turned to Hermes, his dear son. 

24. As the king and queen were descending, a great multitude 
in tha yard arrested their attention. 

25. Then, trooping over hil! and valley, came matron and maid, 
grave men and smiling youths, like swallows gathering for their 
autumn flight. 

LESSOiY 71. 

1. "When two or more statements are combined in one sentence, 
what is each statement called? 

2. Give examples of sentences containing two or more clauses 
each. 

3. Which of them consists entirely of principal clauses? 



Talks on Language. — No. 15. 96 

4. Which contain an adjective clause? 

5. Which contain an adverbial clause? 

6. W^hat name is given to a sentence that has a subordinate 
clause in it? 

7. W^hat is a sentence called that consists wholly of principal 
clauses ? 

8. What do we call a sentence that consists of a single state- 
ment with no clauses to limit it? — A simple sentence. 

9. Why are all adjective or adverbial elements said to be sub- 
ordinate? 

10. How are clauses joined? 

11. What may be noticed with respect to the punctuation of 
clauses, as compared with that of couplets and series of words and 
phrases? 

12. W^hat may be set down with respect to the separation of 
principal clauses? 

13. When are they to be separated by the comma? W^hen by 
the semicolon? The colon? 

LESSON 72. 

1. What is told us by the first word of an adverbial clause? 

2. What word shows that a clause is to be an adverb of place? 

3. What words introduce a clause that denotes time? Cause 
or purpose? 

4. What may be said of as and sijice ? 

5. How are conditional clauses introduced? 

6. What name is given to w^ords that introduce adverbial 
clauses? 

7. What is the first thing to be done in analyzing a compound 
sentence ? 

S. What do we tell next? 

Q, After this, how do we proceed ? 

10. What different way have we of starting in with the analy- 
sis of a complex sentence? 

11. How do we proceed in anah'zing an adverbial clause? 



97 Talks on Language. — No. 15. 

12. When should adverbial clauses be set off by the comma? 

13. Find examples of adverbial clauses that should be set off, 
and some also that should not be set off. 

LESSON 73, 

1. Analyze sentences i, 2, 4, and 5. 

2. Explain the punctuation of 3, 6, 7, and 8. 

LESSON 74. 

1. Parse the conjunctions and the adjectives in 9 and ro. 

2. Analyze 11 and 14. 

3. Explain the punctuation of 12, 13, 15, and 16. 

LESSON 7S. 

1. Analyze 19, 20, and 24. 

2. Explain the punctuation of 17, 18, 22, and 25. 

3. Parse son in 2,-^^ yet in 11, and as in 24. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE — No, 16. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

An Adjective Clause does the same work as an adjective phrase. 
The difference tetwcen the clause and the phrase is, that the clause 
has a subject and predicate, while the phrase has neither. 

The same quality maj^ often be expressed by a w ord, a phrase, 
or a clause; as, A -wise man; A man of wisdom; A man who 
is wise. In the first instance, we use an adjective to denote the 
qualitv. In the second, \\q. use an abstract noun to iiaine the 
quality, and a preposition to show the relation of the quality to 
the man. In the third exam.ple, we predicate the qualit^^, in an 
incidental way. In order to do this, we take a peculiar kind of 
pronoun to introduce the clause. "Whenever this kind of pronoun 
is emploved, we know that the clause introduced by it will be an 
adjective elemiCnt, ;;rd that it will in som.e way describe the thing- 
which the pronoun represents. Such a pronoun shows the re- 
lation of its clause to the thing- described, and for that reason it 
is called a Relative Pronoun. 

The noun which the pronoun stands for, comes before the 
pronoun, in the sentence, and is therefore called its Antecedent; 
for the word "antecedent" means goitig before. 

In the example given above, who stands for the noun man^ 
and so it must be a pronoun. It shows the relation of its clause 
to that noun, so it must be a relative pronoun. 

The relative pronoun says, "This clause w^hich I no^v intro- 
duce, is an adjective element; I bring it to describe the thing 
named by m}'^ antecedent." 

Now" all adjective elements are subordinate; so when the pro- 
noun shows its clause to be an adjective element, it show^s it to 
be in a subordinate relation. 

The adjective clause, like all other adjective elements, must 
be set off by the comma whenever it is not restrictive. 



99 Talks on Language. — No. i6. 

MODEI.S FOR ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — We respect a man -who honors God, 

We is the Subject of this sentence, and respect is the Predicate. 

Ma7i tells whom we respect. 

Who honors God tells what kind of man we respect. It is 
an adjective clause, restrictive, and therefore not set off. 

Who alludes to the man to tell what is described b}- this clause. 

Who is also the Subject of the clause, and Jionorsx's, the Pred- 
icate. 

God tells what being- it is that the man honors. 

Ex. — My mother, whom I remember but faintly, died whe7i 
I xvas three years old. 

Mother is the Subject of this sentence, and died is the Predi- 
cate. 

My tells whose mother is meant. 

Whom I remember, etc., desctibes m^^ mother by g-iving an 
incidental thought concerning- her. It is an adjective clause, 
not restrictive, and therefore set off by the comma. 

/ is the Subject, remember is the Predicate, and zvhom, by al- 
luding to my mother, tells who it is that the clause is to describe. 

W^hen I vjas three years old, tells the time of my mother's 
death. It is an adverbial clause, added to the verb died ; but 
since it is so closely related to that word, it is not set off. 

When introduces the clause, and indicates its use. 

/is the Subject, and rvas old is the Predicate. 

Th7'ee years tells how old I was ; it is an adverbial phrase 
without a preposition, and is added to the predicate was old. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — We praise the wight who vjins. 

Who is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shows its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to the noun wight. As a 
pronoun, it means the same as its antecedent wight, and therefore 



Talks on Language. —No. i6. ioo 

has the same person, number, and gender. It is the subject of 
its clause, and is therefore put in the subjective form. 

Ex. — Blesred is the man whose God is the Lord. 

"W^llOSe is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shoAvs its 
clause to be in a subordinate relation to the noun 7nan. As a 
pronoun, it means the same as its antecedent man^ and therefore 
has the same person, number, and gender. B}^ alluding to the 
man, it tells whose God is meant, and is therefore put in the pos- 
sessive form. 

General Examples. 

1. They despise a man who begs. 

2. General Quinn, who was a ver}' small man, carried a sword 
whose scabbard swept the ground when he w^alked. 

3. He that follows his own judgment will fall into error. 

4. The Canada Pacific Railway, which crosses the southern 
part of British America, opens xip a new region for civilization. 

5. O ye that dwell in Moab, leave the cities, and dwell in the 
rock. 

6. He that hateth reproof is brutish. 

7. I cheerfvilh^ obeyed my mother, who alwa3^s ruled by love. 
S. We thank you for the kind interest w^hich yOu have taken 

in our welfare. 

9. A fool despiseth his father's instruction, but he that regard - 
eth reproof is prudent. 

10. Her dear aunt, who was aAvakened \)y the music, followed 
silently to the wincio\v. 

11. These games were approved by the present pastor, who 
Avas a lover of old customs. 

12. The lawn beyond was sheeted with a slight covering of 
snow, which here and there sparkled as the moon -beams caught 
a frosty crystal. 

13. The huge square columns that supported the gate were sur- 
mounted by the famil}'' crest. 



loi Talks on Language. — No. t6. 

14. Close to the gate was the porter's lodge, sheltered under 
dark fir trees, and almost buried in shrubbery. 

15. The post-boy rang a large bell, which resounded through 
the still, frosty air, and was ans^vered by the dogs of the castle. 

16. We alighted, and walked through the i)ark to the Hall, 
which was not distant. 

17. We left the Arno, whose mighty curve is followed on either 
side by magnificent palaces. 

iS. Tie that winneth souls is wise. 

LESSON 76. 

1. In its xise, what does the adjective clause resemble? 

2. What is the difference between the clause and the phrase? 

3. In -^vhat different ways may the same quality' be expressed ? 

4. How is the quality denoted in the first instance? 

5. How is the quality expressed in the second instance? 

6. How do we show the relation of this quality to the thing 
Vv'hich possesses it? 

7. How is the man described in the third example ? 

S. In order to do this, how must the clause be introduced? 
9. What may we know whenever we come to this kind of pro - 
noun? 

10. Why is such a word called a relative pronoun? 

11. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 

12. Why is it so called ? 

13. How do you prove that 7vho, in the example above, is a pro- 
noun? 

14. How do 3'ou show that it is a relative pronoun? 

15. W^hat may the relative pronoun be supposed to say? 

16. What may be said of the rank of all adjective elements? 

17. How, then, does the relative pronoun show that its clause 
IS in a subordinate relation ? 

iS. What may be said of the punctuation of adjective clauses? 



Talks ox Language. — No. i6. 102 

LESSON 77. 

1. What is the first step in analyzing an adjective clause? — 
To tell its use as a vjhole. 

2. What is the next step?— T"^ notice its punctuation. 

3. What do we next notice?—/-^.? inti'oductory word; its sub- 
ject, predicate, etc, 

4. What four steps ma 3^ be noticed in the parsing of a relative 
pronoun ? 

5. Analyze sentences i, 2, and 3, of the General Examples. 

6. Parse the relative pronouns in each of these sentences. 

7. Parse they, vjas, and when. 

LESSON 78, 

1. Analyze 4, 5, 6, and 7. 

2. Parse the relative pronouns in each. 

LESSON 7g. 

1. Parse all the pronouns in sentence S. 

2. Analyze 9, 10, 11, and 13. 

LESSON 80. 

1. Analyze 14, 15, 16, and 17. 

2. Parse the pronouns in 13, 17, and iS, 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 17. 



PUNCTUATION REVIEWED. 

We will now review what has been taught about punctuation, 
and give some further instruction. The subject of punctuation 
IS a verj' important one, and should receive careful attention. 

COUPLETS. 

The terms of a couplet should be separated by the comma, 
when the}' have no conjunction to join them ; when they are dif- 
ferently limited ; when the second term means the same as the 
first ; or when the second term is emphatic. 

When the terms are separated b)- any mark, there should be 
a comma after the second term, unless it is immediately followed 
by a word which the couplet limits, or by the object which re- 
ceives the action expressed by the terms when they chance to be 
verbs or participles. 



The terms of a series are always separated by the comma, un- 
less the conjunction is used between them throughout. In this 
latter case also, the terms are usuall)' separated by the comma ; 
but when the use of these commas would destroy the force of 
other commas in the sentence, or when we wish to bring all the 
terms in before giving the mind time to think of them separately, 
we omit the comma between the terms. 

When the conjunction is omitted throughout, between the terms 
of a series, a comma must be put after the last term, unless the 
series is immediately followed by the word it limits, or unless there 
is but one short word after it in the sentence. 

When a series is formally introduced b}' an adjective denoting 
number, or by some such word as Mat, these, the folloxving y as 
follows, etc., it must have a colon just before it. If the series 
is very long, or is put in a separate paragraph, a dash must be 



Talks on Language —No. 17. 104 

put after the colon. 

When some such word as namely, as, viz., etc. introduces the 
series, a semicolon must be put before the introductory word, and 
a comma after it. If namely is understood, a comma and dash 
must be put before the series ; or in some instances, when the 
constrvTction is very simple, the semicolon, or the dash alone, may 
be used. 

ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

The adjective element, whether it is a word, a phrase, or a 
clause, must be set off by the comma, whenever it is not restrictive. 
The adjective word, and the ordinary adjective phrase, are most 
commonly restrictive, and therefore not set off. The chiuse is 
often non-restrictive. 

Besides the ordinary adjective phrase, we have the participial 
phrase, the adjectival phrase, and the ap})osUional phrase, all punc- 
tuated b}^ the same rule. 

The adjectival phrase, and the appositional phrase, aie not of- 
ten restrictive, and so they are generalh- set off by the comma. 
The adjectival phrase often consists of a couplet or a series of ad- 
jectives. Such a phrase is set off by the same rule as other ad- 
•jective elements, and then the terms are separated according to 
the rules already given. 

ADVERBIAL ELE:MENTS. 

As a rule, the pauses that should be made in reading, have 
very little to do Avith the punctuation of a sentence ; but adverb- 
ial words and phrases seem to be an exception. When such an 
adverbial element requires a pause, both before and after it, in or- 
der to make the meaning plain, it must be set off by the comma, 
especiiilly if it comes before the word which it limits. 

The adverbial clause, as noticed in Talk 15, must be set off 
when it comes before the word which it limits, or when it is not 
closely related in thoiight to that word. 



I05 Talks on Language. — No. 17. 

COORDINATE CLAUSES. 

AVhen cO()rdin;ite clauses are closely related in thoug-ht, they 
are separated by the comma, especially when they are joined by 
a conjunction, and not subdivided b}^ the comma. 

When coordmate clauses are not closely related in thought, 
they are separated by the semicolon, especially if they have no 
conjunction between them, or if they are, either of them, separated 
into somewhat important divisions by the comma. 

When coordinate clauses are but slightly related in thought, 
thej' are separated by the colon, and especially so, if either of them 
is subdivided by the semicolon. 

The rules for couplets and series of words must not be applied 
to clauses. A conjunction between the last two clauses of a 
series mav be regarded as joining tlie whole series, and not merely 
the two between which it occurs. Couplets and series of clauses 
^re punctuated by the same rule. 

Illustrative Examples. 

1. Stealthily, cautiously, the robber crossed the inclosure. 

2. The kernel, or nucleus, is the whole body of the seed within 
the coats. 

3. Aim not to show knowledge, but to acquire it. 

4. A flash of purple Are blazed out from above the horizon, 
and turned the dew}^ tear-drops of flower and leaf into rubies and 
diamonds. 

5. Strange is the heart of man, with its quick, mysterious in- 
stincts. 

6. When the carriage again stopped, we found ourselves in 
front of a long, low, straggling row of stone buildings. 

7. His manner, his carriage, even his voice, showed his royal 
birth. 

8. \\"e visited the following placjs : Boston, Low^ell, Lawrence, 
Danvers, and Salem. 

9. Reports have been received from five states ; namely, Mich- 
igan, Ohio, New York, Iowa, and Wisconsin. 



Talks on LANciUAOE. — No. 17, 106 

10. Before me stand the wondrous band,— bards, sages, heroes, 
side by side, who darkened nations when they died. 

11. There are three great kingdoms in nature; the mineral, 
the vegetable, and the animal. 

12. In one of these squares the bo3^s were playing ball, striking 
it with a tambourine instead of a bat. 

13. White with the frosts of winter, the window panes glis- 
tened in the rays of the morning sun. 

14. Voltaire, who saw him, speaks repeatedly of his majestic 
appearance. 

j:;. This plain was dotted with lovel}^ lakes, whose margins 
were fringed with oaks and willow-s. 

16. The hills which our feet climbed in childhood are ever green 
in our memor3\ 

17. While we respect the opinions of others, we adhere to ov;r 
own. 

18. Like most of his class, Captain Jones had a stern face. 

19. The merry look died out of the boy's face, and resentment 
flashed from his brown eyes. 

20. On the far sky leans the old ruined mill. 
Through its rent sails the broken sunbeams glow^ 

21. Softly silently the Avhite moon-beams crept into the de- 
serted room. 

22. His footsteps echo along the floor of a distant passage and 
then pause awhile. 

23. Their voices sank still lower sank to husky tones of fear. 

24. A w^ax-wing or cherry-bird has made her nest over there. 

25. Tender yet firm were the words which he spoke. 

26. Dark heavy clouds gathered over the sky. 

27. Hoarsely furiouslyroared the cataract. 

2S. His father lonely old and gray sits by the fireside dav 
by day. 

29. There are the pictures bright and ga}^ horses and hounds 
and sun-lit seas. 



I07 Talks on Language. — No. 17. 

30. The village curate with lantern and maid comes through 
the gate -way from the park. 

31. And now at the old man's side he stands his voice is cheery 
his heart expands he gossips pleasantly about old davs. 

33. When winter is passed the birds return. 

33. With him time dragged slowly as linger the hours of a 
drear}' day. 

34. The two small hands, that now are pressed in his, seem 
made to be caressed ; thev lie so warm and soft and still, like 
birds half hidden in a nest, trustful, and innocent of ill. 

35. Careless of fortune's smile or frown and grown weary of 
the world and its ways he wished to pass the rest of his days 
in private life. 

36. The lone rose-bush bereft of everv leaf stretched out its 
long scraggy briers and tapped tapped disconsolately at the 
windows. 

LESSON Si. 

r. When should the terms of a couplet be separated by a 
comma ? 

2. \V"hen the terms of a couplet are separated, what else is re- 
quired ? 

3. When do we make an exception to this rule? 

4. Show how the above rules are applied in the Illustrative 
Kxamples. 

5. How are the terms of a series punctuated? 

i^\ When should a comma be put immediately after the last 
term of a series ? 

7. When should the comma be omitted after a series? 

S. When should the colon precede a series? 

Q. When should a dash be put after the colon that precedes a 
series ? 

10. What punctuation is required when as, ?tamely, or some 
such word introduces a series? 

11. What ])unctuaiion is required when some such word :is 



Talks on Language.— No. 17. loS 

vamely is understood before the series? 

12. When may the semicolon, or the dash alone, be vised? 

13. Illustrate these rules from the examples given m this Talk. 

LESSON 82. 

1. How can we know when to set off an adjective element of 
any kind ? 

2. What different kinds of adjective elements may be mentioned? 

3. Which of these adjective elements are most commonly re- 
strictive? 

4. Which are most commonly non -restrictive? 

5. Of what does the adjective phrase often consist? 

6. How is such a phrase punctuated? 

7. As a rule, what relation is there between pauses and punc- 
tuation marks? 

8. What exception to this rule must be made? 

Q. AVhen should the adverbial ^vord or phrase be set off? 

10. When should an adverbial clause be set off? 

11. When should coordinate clauses be separated by the comma? 

12. When should tlie}' be separated by the semicolon? 

13. When by the colon? 

14. May the rules for couplets or series of Avords be applied to 
couplets or series of clauses? 

15. When a conjunction is found between the last two clauses 
of a series, how^ may it often be regarded ? 

\h. Why do we not have separate rules for punctuating couplets 
and series of clauses, just as we do for punctuating couplets and 
series of words? 

LESSON 83. 

I. KxPLAix the punctuation of the first ten sentences in the 
Illustrative Examples. 

LESSONS 84 d- 83. 

I. Explain the punctuation of examples 11 to 20. Insert 
marks whenever they are needed in the remaining examples, and 
tell why each mark should be used. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE. -No. i8. 



VERBAL NOUNS. 

An action -word may become a noun by being- used to name 
the action which it denotes. Such a noun is called a Verbal 
Noun, and may be the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb, 
the object of a preposition, or a part of the predicate. 

PARTICIPLES AS NOUNS. 

We have seen that participles are action- words that do not 
predicate the action which the}^ denote. They describe thing's 
by assuming action of them, just as adjectives do by assuming qual- 
ity or condition ; and, Uke adjectives, they are usually added to 
nouns. 

The adjective has to change its form, and become quite a dif- 
ferent word, before it can name a quality, and thus become an ab- 
stract noun ; but the participle does not change its form at all in 
becoming a verbal noun. It is only by the Avay in which it is 
used that we can tell whether it is an adjective element or a novin 

If I say, "We saw a boy skating on the ice," the participle. 
skatino- is added to the noun boy to describe him by telling inci- 
dentally what he is doing. But if I say, "Skating is a health- 
ful amusement," the participle names an action. It thus becomes 
a verbal noun, and is subject of the sentence. 

The participle used as a noun may be transitive, and have an 
object after it ; it may be modified by adverbial words, phrases, 
or clauses ; or it may be limited by adjective elements ; as seen 
in the folio >ving examples : — 

1. Capturing whales in the arctic seas is dangerous employ- 
ment. 

2. The teeth are injured b}^ eating sugar. 

3. The constant heaving and sinking of the boat causes sea- 
sickness. 

4. He heard the heavy beating of the waves on the rocky walls 
of his dungeon. 



Talks on LANciUAOi:. — No. iS. no 

5. The most critical movement is the throwing- of the harpoon. 

THE INFINITIVE AS A NOUN. 

There is a kind of verb called the Infinitive. Tt is so called 
becavise it does not change its form for the person and number of 
any subject. It is also called the Name Form of the verb ; be- 
cause it is the form used in ni^ming an action, or in nammg^ the 
verb itself. In its complete form it begfins with to j as, To 
walk ; To think ; To talk ; To write. The to is often dropped, 
however, after certain words ; such as may, can, must, might, 
could, vjould, should, make, feel, need, see, etc. 

The infinitive used as a noun may be the subject or the object 
of a verb, or it may be used with the copula to make the predi- 
cate ; as, "To walk is healthful;" "All men learn to walk;" 
"His highest ambition is to wear a soldier's uniform." 

The infinitive was used anciently as the object of a preposition ; 
as, "What went ye out for to see?" but it is not considered 
proper to use it so now. 

The infinitive is not very pro))erly called a verb ; for, like the 
participle, it can not predicate any thing. But since it has two 
forms that resemble tenses, it is commonly spoken of as a verb 
in the infinitive mode. 

The verbal noun may not only have an object, like the verb 
from which it is derived, but it may be limited by adverbial ele- 
ments ; as, — 

1. I was reproved for driving too fast. 

2, To wait while others eat is not pleasant for hungrj^ children. 

The verbal noun is never used to tell whose, and so it never 
changes its form. For this reason we say nothing about its forin 
in parsing it. This kind of noun is always in the third person 
and neuter gender, and is seldom used in the plural number. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — / heard the ringing of the merry bells. 
Ringing is a participle, present active, intransitive ; it names 



ni Talks on Language. — No. iS. 

an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. As a noun it is com- 
mon, 3d p., sing-, n., neu. g., and subject of the sentence. 

Ex. — Nathan rvas fined for stealing melons. 

Stealing is a participle, present active, transitive ; it names 
an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. As a noun it is 
common, 3d p., sing, n., neu. g., and object of the preposition ybr. 

Melons is a noun, com., 3d p., plu. n., neu, g., and object 
of the participle stealing. 

Note. — Heretofore we have talked of the participle as sharing 
the natui-e of the verb and the adjective, but now we see that it 
irc-metimes partakes of the nature of the verb and the noun. 

It seems best to regard it as a jiarticiple, whether the verb 
nature is combined with that of an adjective, or with that of a 
noun ; for in either case it may be transitive or intransitive, and 
mry be limited hy adverbial elements. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — To fide iji a balloon is not a safe amusement. 

To ride is a verb in the infinitive mode ; it here names an 
action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. As a noun, it is com- 
mon, 3d p., sing, n., neu. gen., and subject of the sentence. 

Ex. — All 7nen learn to walk. 

To walk is a verb in the infinitive mode ; it here names 
an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. As a noun, it is 
com,, 3d p., sing, n., neu, g., and object of the verb learn. 

Ex, — // IS a healthful exercise to vjalk in the moriiijig sunlight. 

To walk is a verb in the infinitive mode ; it is here used 
to name an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. As a noun, 
it is common, 3d p., sing, n., neu, g, ; it explains what is meant 
by it, and is therefore said to be in apposition with it. 



Talks on Language. —No. i8. 112 

General Examples. 

1. Breathing deeph', expands the lungs. 

2. He was imprisoned for passing counterfeit money. 

3. To falter in such a cause is treason. 

4. It is vain to trust in man. 

5. Some pupils hate to write compositions. 

6. The3^ rode onward in silence, and entered the town with 
the others. 

7. Brother Anthony, who knew the pranks of Brother Timothy, 
never reasoned with him on his quirks and cranks. 

8. T hear the low, sad moaning of the sea. 

Q. He was blamed for leaving the key in the lock : but the 
thief came in through a back window, never once trying to enter 
by the door. 

10. While the robber was intent on searching the drawer, the 
lady slipped noiselessly by him, and locked the door on the out- 
side. 

11. Raising a window, she gave a cry which alarmed the police 
at once. 

12. Traveler, hurrying from the heat of the citv, stay thy feet. 

13. One night the poor mason was roused from his sleep by a 
loud knocking at his door. 

14. The peasant and the laborer sleep beneath the trees of the 
Alameda, lulled by the sultry chirping of the locust. 

15. As the sun declines, there is a gadual reviving ; and when 
the vesper bell rings out its sinking knell, all nature rejoices. 

16. The mason waited faithfully, amusing himself by weighing 
the gold pieces in his hand, and klinking them against each other. 

17. Leaving the haunted tanks behind us, we pursued our ram- 
ble up a solitary mule-path that wound among the hills, and soon 
found ourselves midsl wild and melancholy mountains, destitute 
of trees, and here and there tinted with scanty verdure. 

iS. The evening was approaching ; tiie setting of the sun gilded 
the loftiest heights. 

19. Ferdinand, whose pious zeal was quickend by motives of 



113 Talks on Language. — No. iS. 

temporal policv, looked with a craving eye at the rich territory of 

the Moors, studded with innumerable towns and cities. 

20. Ortega approached Alhama one moonless night, and paced 
along its walls with noiseless step, laying .his ear occasionally to 
the ground or to the wall. 

LESSON 86. 

1. How may an action- word become a noun? 

2. What is such a noun called? 

3. What office may it have in a sentence? 

4. What have w^e seen concerning the nature of participles? 

5. How do they describe things? 

6. How are the}^ used : 

7. What is an abstract noun ? 

S. What has to be done to the adjective before it can name a 
quality, and thus become an abstract noun? 

9. How is it with the particple in becoming a verbal noun? 

10. What is the only way of telling whether a participle is an 
adjective element or a verbal noun? 

11. Illustrate these uses by examples. 

12. A participle used as a vei-bal noun may have what various 
kinds of limitations? 

13. Illustrate by examples. 

LESSON 87. 

1. Why is a certain kind of verb called the infinitive? 

2. Why is it sometimes called the name -form of the verb? 

3. What may be said of its complete form ? 

4. W^hen is the introductory io omitted ? 

5. What different offices may be filled by the infinitive used as 
a verbal noun? 

6. Illustrate by examples. 

7. What may be said of its being used as the object of a j^red- 
osition ? 

S. Why does it not seem very proper to call the infinitive a 



Tai.ks on Language,— Xo, iS. 114 

verb? 

0. What reason may be g-iven for its being- s})oken of as a verb 
in the infinitive mode? 

10. How may the infinitive be limited? Give examples. 

11. In what office does an ordinary noun chang^e its form ? 

12. Why is nothing- said of form in parsing an infinitive verbal 
noun ? 

13. In what other respect is a verbal noun peculiar? 

1. Study the first eight sentences in the General Examples? 

2. Write the parsing of hreathino-^ deeply^ for^ passin£\ ononey^ 
to falter^ to wriie^ and to trust, 

3. Explain the punctuation of 5 and 8. 

4. Analyze sentence 7. 

LESSON 80. 

t. Analyze sentences g and 10. 

2. Explain the punctuation of 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16. 

3. Parse searching, raishio-, knockino-, In/led, amusino-, and 
"i'jeighing. 

LESSON qo, 

1. Parse having., that^ tokose^ and studded. 

2. Explain the punctuation of 17, 18, and 19. 

3. Analyze sentence 20. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No 19. 



ADDITIONAL TENSES 

In addition to the tenses already used, we have a future tense, 
and three perfect tenses. 

THE FUTURE TENSE. 

The future tense is used when we wish to predicate a future 
act, being, or state, or when we wish to express a determination 
concerning- it. 

This tense consists of two words, — the name-foi'm, or presejit 
hifjmtiTe, of the verb we wish to iise, and one of the words, shall 
or vjUI. The infinitive denotes the action, but, Hke the participle, 
it can neither show the time of the action, nor that it is predicated ; 
so shall or will is prefixed to make up the deficiency. 

The future tense of To Be is used as copula before an adjective 
in predicate whenever we wish to predict a future quality or con- 
dition of the subject, and before a noun whenever we wish to predict 
that a p<.;rson or thing wdi belong to a certain class in the future. 

Examples. 

r. If 3^ou will luidertake the work, I w;7/ /;'£»;// w^ to assist you 
in it. 

2. You shall be captain if you rvill be faithful. 

THE PERFECT TENSES. 

These tenses are called perfect, because they are used when 
we wish to represent an action as perfected in the sense of being 
finished, or in a state of completion. We need three of them, 
in order that we may be able to represent an act as completed nou\ 
or in the past, or in the ftiture. 

The one that represents the act as perfected at the present 
time, is called the Present Perfect ; the one that represents it as 
having been completed at a point of time in the past is called the 
Past Perfect ; and the one that predicts that an act will be in a 



Talks ox Language. —Xo. 19. 116 

completed state at specified time in the future, is called the Future 
Perfect. 

These tenses are all alike in representing the action as com- 
I L'ted ; so thev all have the same action-word as basis, or chief 
j)art. 

For this purpose of denoting a completed action, we have a 
form of the verb called the Past Participle. It is spelled like 
the passive participle, and has to be distinguished from it bv its 
use. The passive participle is often used alone, as well as with 
the copula in predicate ; but the past participle is used just after 
some form of the word /lare, and is seldom if ever found in anv 
other connection. 

Now when we wish to make any of the perfect tenses, we 
take the past participle of our verb for the base, and put before 
it the present tense of Iiave for the present perfect tense, the past 
of hare [had] for the past perfect tense, and the future of kave 
[shall have or will have] for the future perfect. 

These different tenses of kare show the time, and give the 
power of predication. 

Examples. 

1. I have written ; We have written ; You have written ; 
They have written ; He has written ; She has written. 

2. I had written ; We had written ; You had written ; They 
had written ; He had written ; She had written. 

3. I shall have written ; We shall have written ; You zvill 
have written ; They will have witten ; He 7vill have written ; 
She vjill have w^ritten. 

By looking over these examples, it will be seen that in the 
present perfect tense have is changed to has, whenever the sub- 
ject is in the third person, singular number ; and that in the other 
two perfect tenses the verb does not change for a subject in any 
person and number. 

In the future tense also, the verb never changes its form for 
the person and number of its subject. 



1 17 Talks on Language.— No. 19. 

Thus we see that ordinary verbs have no change .pf form excep^t 
in two tenses — the present and the present perfect ; and that this 
chang-e occurs only in the third person, singular number. The 
verb To Be has changes in three tenses ; but has none in the 
past perfect, the future, or the future perfect. 

The perfect tenses of the ver^b T,o Be are used as copula be- 
fore the adjective or t;l;ie noiun in pjedjicate, just like the other tenses 
of that verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

3. He Ji.ad been the )>astor of that church for thirty years. 

2. You have been faitliful, and shall be rewarded. 

3^. I sJi^all have been a freedman nine years next June. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Kx. — He vjill hare fled before yon 7'each his castle. 

Will liav.© iied. is a verb, irreguhir, intransitive ; indicative 
mode, future perfect tense. Verbs in this tense do not change 
th.ir form for the person and number of their subject. 

Ex. — li shall be a wall of defense foi' you. 

Shall be is a verb, copula ; indicative mode, future tense. 
V^erbs in this tense do not change their forrn for the persoi;i 
and number of their subject. 

General Example^. 

1. If you will come early, I will go with you. 

2. He had written before he received my letter. 

3. Solemnly, mournfully tolls the curfew bell. 

4. He has reached the height of his ambition. 

5. We expect to meet Ricardo, who has lately returned ixo\\\ 
Venice. 

6. The hooded clouds, like friars, tell their beads in drops (>£ 
rain, and patter their doleful prayers. 

7. By the cypresses softly overshadowed, until the angel calls 



Talks on Language. — No. 19. iiS 

them, they will slumber. 

8. It is unsafe to trust in riches. 

9. I had six dollars after defraying the expenses of my journey. 

10. Before the French revolution, m}^ uncle had passed several 
years at Paris. 

11. Fortune has cast me at thy feet, but m}^ soul is unsubdued. 

12. Shortly after the Arabs had encamped before their walls, a 
band of cavaliers made a sudden sally one morning- before the 
break of day, fell upon the enemy by surprise, killed about three 
hundred of them in \heir tents, and effected their retreat into the 
city. 

13. Among these sacred spoils was found a cup made of a single 
pearl, which a king of Spain, in ancient time, had brought from 
the temple at Jerusalem. 

14. Before morning he wall have passed beyond the reach of 
our sympathy. 

15. Have you seen him to-day? ' 

16. They had been class-mates at college. 

17. After covering my firr, I undertook to compose myself for 
sleep. 

iS. I had brought wath me a curious old volume. 

LESSON Qi. 

1. What tenses have been already noticed? 

2. What additional ones must be studied? 

3. When do \ve use the future tense? 

4. Of how many words does this tense usualh' consist? 

5. What are they? 

6. What does the infinitive denote? 

7. What is it unable to do? 

8. What part of speech is it like in this respect? 

9. What dfcficiencv is made up by sJiall or ivill F 

10. When is the future tense of To Be used as copula before 
an adjective in predicate? 

11. When is it used before a noun in predicate? 



up Talks on Language. — No. 19. 

12. Illustrate by examples. 

13. Why are some of the tenses called perfect? 

14. Why do we need three of them? 

15. Which is called the present perfect? 

16. W^hich is called the past perfect? 

17. Which the future perfect? 

LESSON g2. 

1. Why do the perfect tenses all have the same action -word 
as basis? 

2. What do we have for this purpose of denoting completed 
action ? 

3. What may be said of the form, or spelling, of this parti- 
ciple ? 

4. How, then, can we distinguish the past participle from the 
])assive? 

5. How does the passive participle represent its action? — Asi 
received by the thi?ig which it describes. 

6. In what other respect do these participles differ in their use? 

7. When we want to make any of the perfect tenses, what da 
^ve take for basis? 

S. What do we use for auxiliary, or helper, in each of the 
tenses ? 

9. Give examples. 

10. What will be seen by looking over these examples? 
IT. How is it with the verb in the future tense with respect to- 
change of form ? 

12. In what tenses does any ordinary verb change its form? 

13. Under what conditions does this change occur? 

14. W^hat may be said in regard to the changes of the verb 
To Be? 

15. When are the i)erfect tenses of the verb To Be used as a 
copula ? 

16. Give examples. 



Talks on Language.— No. 19. 120 

LESSON gj. 
1. Parse the verbs in sentences i, 2, 4, and 5, of the General 
Examples. 

3. Anah-ze 6 and 7. 

3, Explain the punctuation of 3. 

4. Parse the pronouns in 5. 

LESSON g4. 

1. Analyze sentences 12 and 13. 

2. Parse the verbal nouns in S and 9. 

3. Explain the punctuation in 10 and 11. 

4. Parse the verbs in 10 and 11. 

LESSONqs. 

1. Parse the relative pronoun in 13. 

2. Parse to-day^ in 15. 

3. Parse to compose, in 17. 

4. Parse the verbs in 14, 15, 16, and iS, 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 20. 



MODES. 

There are five modes, so called, in our language. Of these, 
we have noticed the Indicative, which has six tenses, and the Im- 
perative, which has but one. Besides these, we have just men- 
tioned the Infinitive. We will now take up the 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

There are times when we do not wish to state that an action 
really took place in the past, that it is going- on now, or that it 
ever will take place ; but merely that it is possible or probable. 
1 his makes it necessary to have a form of the verb that will pred- 
icate the power to act, and not the act itself. Now potency 
means power, so this form of the verb is called the Potential 
xVIode. 

Examples. 

1. An engine cmt draiv an immense load on a level track. 

2. He may come this evening, but I think he \vill not arrive 
till morning. 

3. Luther, you may go to the pond, but you must return be- 
fore nine. 

In the examples just given, *'can draw" predicates the />czye'A, 
the possibility^ of the action; "may come" predicates what is 
possible or probable ; " may go " predicates permission ,' and " must 
return " predicates what is necessaiy or imperative. 

The i)otential mode has all the tenses of the indicative mode 
except the future and the future perfect. 

In the present tense, the Present Infinitive, or Name -form, 
of the verb is taken for Basis, or chief word, and one of the 
words may, can, or must is put before it as auxiliary ; as. May 
read ; Can read ; Must read. 

The past potential has the s;ime base as the present, but dif- 
ferent auxiliaries ; mighty could ^ would, should, or ought being used 



'J'ai.ks on Language. — Tso. 20. 122 

instfiid of may, can, or jmtst. The to of the infinitive is drop- 
ped :-fler all these aiixihnries except oit^/ii. 

'1 hese tenses, though cnlled past and present, are not true to 
their name ; for the past sometimes denotes a j)ossibiHt\ of doing- 
something- in the present, or even In the future ; while the pres- 
ent not unfrcquentlv predicates something future. 

The perfect tenses of the potential mode have the past participle 
for a basis, just the s;ime as the perfect tenses of the indicative 
mode ; but for auxiliaries Xhey take the potential tenses of have 
instead of the indicative. So for the present perfect, we have 
Can have gone, May have gone, or Must have gone ; instead of 
Have gone ; for inay hare, can hare, and tnitst have, are the dif- 
ferent forms of the potential present tense of the verb have, just 
as hare or has are different forms of the Indicative present. Might 
hare, could hare, shoidd hare, zvonld hare, and ought to hare are 
different forms of the potential past tenses of the verb hare; so 
we put one of them befoi-e the past participle for the past perfect 
tense of the potential mode, just as Ave do had in the past perfect 
of the indicative mode. 

The potential tenses of the verb To Be are used as copula, the 
si^me as its indicative tenses. For examples, " He ought to have 
been faithful;" "You might have been a hero." 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — All meji should be ti'ue to their convictions. 

Should Toe is a verb, copula ; potential mode, past tense. 
Verbs in this mode do not change their form to agree with the 
person and number of their subject. 

Ex. — Tou may hare bee?i deceired. 

May have been deceived is a verb, regular, transitive, 
passive voice ; potential mode, present perfect tense. Verbs 
in this mode do not change their form for the person and number 
of their subject. 



123 Tai,ks on Language. — No. 20. 

Kx.— l/e oiigJit to have been a clergyman. 

Ought to have been is a verb, copula ; potential mode, 
present tense. Verbs in this mode do not change their form for 
the person and number of their subject. 

General Examples. 

1. Thev should read and study together, having the same line 
of thought, helping each other toward higher inental culture. 

2. Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever. 

3. I can hear sweet invitations 
Through the sobbing, sad vibrations 

Of the winds that follow. 

4. He must increase, but I must decrease. 

5. Peering cautiously through the branches, we saw the body 
of the huge monster, as he lay there upon his bed of leaves be- 
neath the great rock. 

6. He may have been captured by the banditti. 

7. You should have seen him, as he stood there in all the pomp 
and pride of a new jacket. 

8. If you had listened, you might have heard the sound of the 
prisoner's knife, with which he was scratching a hole through the 
wall of his dungeon. 

Q. Be wise, and heed the voice of instruction. 
10. When they had reached the portal, whose deep archway was 
dimly lighted by a cresset, the stranger paused, and addressed the 
baron in a hollow tone of voice, which the vaulted roof solemnly 
echoed round and round. 

J I. Such a wide-spread race must, of necessity, show great 
variety of manners and modes of life. 

12. If these savage beauties could be induced to wash their faces, 
many of them would show a very fair complexion. 

13. Not a particle of wet can find its way through the boots 
sewed by these Esquimaux women. 

14. Sorrow h;id givea a softness to the charms of the imperious 
Exilona. 



1 



Talks ox I.axguacf.— No. 20. 124 

15. ^Xc might hiive heard many more ghost adventures if the 
sturdv fox -hunter had not suddenly awaked with a loud vawn. 

if\ I sought in various ways to divert his mind, and to arouse 
him from the constant meditations in which he w^as plunged. 

17. It might rouse your curiosity, but it could never satisfv your 
longings. 

iS. I had taken his words in jest ; the\' might have been real. 

19. A lurid, baleful light hung in the heavens at night, and 
showers of ashes, borne by the wind, fell in our narrow valley. 

20. I could not forget this glimpse of a beautiful and happy 
world, — a world so suited to my natural character. 

21. When the supper was ended, they drew^ their chairs to the 
fire-place. 

22. He who would be truly happy must obey the command- 
ments of God. 

23. You ought to have brought your book and instruments. 

24. If you had spoken of your difficulties, I would gladly have 
helped you. 

25. When he played, the atmosphere was filled with magic. 

26. He is not acquainted with the harbor, and his boat may have 
struck the rock at the mouth of the river. 

LESSOJ\r q6. 

T. How many modes in our language? 

2. How^ many of these modes have we noticed? 

3. Which one have we barely mentioned ? 

4. How many tenses has the indicative mode? 

5. How is the future tense formed? 

6. How do we make the perfect tenses? 

7. How do w^e distinguish the Imperative mode from other 
modes? 

S. How manv tenses has tliis mode? 

9. Why is it that the infinitive is not very properly a verb? 
10. Why is it sometimes necessary to have a form of the verb 
thai will predicate the fozver to act and not the act itself? 



125 Taj.ks on Language. — No. 20. 

11. What is this fonn of the verb called? 

12. Whv does this name seem to be appropriate? 

13. Give sentences in which this mode is lised. 

14. What is predicated by each verb in the three sentences 
given in the Talk, as illustrations of this mode? 

15. What does each verb predicate in the sentences which you 
have selected? 

16. W^hat tenses has the potential mode? 

17. What is used as basis of the present tense of the potential 
mode? 

iS. What words are used as auxiliaries to help in formings this 
tense? 

19. What is the basis of the past potential? 

20. From what list of words may its auxiliary be taken? 

21. Which of the auxiliaries in these two tenses requires the to 
of the infinitive to be dropped? 

23. What is the potential present tense of wi'ite^ meditate, obey., 
copy, run, escape, think, ascertain ? 

23. What is the past potential of the same verbs? 

LESSON gj. 
T. How are the tenses of the potential mode untrue to their 
name ? 

2. What is the basis of the perfect tenses in the potential mode? 

3. How do their auxiliaries differ from those of the indicative 
mode? 

4. What is the present tense of have in the indicative mode? 
In the potential? 

5. What is the past tense of have in the indicative mode? In 
the potential? 

6. Make the perfect tenses of the verbs mentioned in 2i of the 
preceding lesson. 

7. How do we use the potential tenses of the verb To Be^ 

8. What peculiarity is there in the parsing of all the verbs in 
the potential mode? 



; v\ Language. — No. 20, 126 

g. AnaJ^-ze the first sentt-nce of the General Examples? 

10. Parse the verb and the first participle. 

11. Explain the punctuation of 2, and parse the first verb in 
that sentence. 

12. Analyze sentence 3. 

LESSON q8. 

1. Parse can hear and tJiat in sentence 3. 

2. Parse must increase and but in sentence 4. 

3. Analyze sentences 5 and 8. 

4. Parse the verbs in 6, 7, and 8. 

LESSON qg. 

1. Analyze sentence 10. 

2. Parse the verbs in 9. 

3. Anah'ze sentences 15 and 19. 

4. Parse the verbs in 12, served in 13, and had given in 14. 

LESSON 100. 

1. Analyze 21, 24, and 26. 

2. Parse the verbs in 15, to arouse in 16, both verbs in iS, and 
tlje j^ronouns in 22. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 21. 



THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

The Infinitive mode has two tenses ; the present and the 
pi'esent perfect. The present is the name-form, which has al- 
read}' lieen described. The present perftct tense, Hke the per- 
fect tenses of other modes, has the past participle for its base. 
For avixiHary it takes the present infinitive of liave just as the 
corresponding- tense takes the indicative present of hare in the in- 
dicative mode, and the potential present of hare in the potential 
mode. 

The perfect tenses, in all the modes, are used when ^ve wish 
to represent the action as completed, and so they all have 
the same base ; namelv, the past participle, which is the only 
^vord that necessarily represents action as completed. Ihis past 
participle can not predicate the action, nor indicate the time of 
its occurrence ; so the auxiliary have, in one form or another, 
* is used in the perfect tenses of all the modes ; have or has, and 
had, In the indicative ; uiaj' have, m'jht have, etc., in the poten- 
tial, and to have in the infinitive. 

The verb in the infinitive mode, like the participle, assumes 
or names an action, but can never predicate it. It always has 
the same form, regardless of the person and number of the subject, 
but drops to w^hen used before certain words, as noticed in Talk 
iS, page no. 

The infinitive differs from the participle in form, and in some 
of its uses. It may be used to ^o the work of an adjective or 
an adverb, but it is more common 1}^ a verbal noun. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — There is a time to laugh and a time to zveep. 

To laugh is a verb, regular, intransitive ; infinitive mode, 
present tense. It is used like an adjective to tell what time is 
meant. 



Talks on Language. —No. 21. 12S 

Ex. — He enlisted to get a bou7ity. 

To ff6t is a verb, irreg-ular, trans., active voicf ; infinitive 
mode, present tense. It is used like an adverb to tell why he 
enlisted. 

Ex. — We desire to spend the vjinter vjith you. 

To spend, is a verb, irreg-ular, trans., active voice ; infinitive 
mode, present tense. It is here used to name an action, and 
thus becomes a verbal noun. As a noun, it is common, 3d per., 
sing-, num., neuter gen., and object of the verb desire. 

Ex. — To have suri'endered would have been cowardly. 

To have surrendered is a verb, reg-ular, intransitive ; 
infinitive mode, present perfect tense.- It here names an action, 
and thus becomes a veibal noun. As a noun it is 3d per., sing, 
number, neuter gender, and subject of the sentence. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

In some conditional clauses, the verb has no change of form 
for the person and number of its subject. This peculiarity of 
the verb constitutes what is called the Subjunctive Mode. 

ITS TENSES. 

This mode has but two tenses ; the present and the past. 
The present tense is the same as the present infinitive without the 
to. The past tense is the same as the past indicative with a 
plural subject. 

1 he present subjunctive of ordinary verbs differs from the 
present indicative in that it does not add s when its subject is in 
the third person, lingular number. The present subjunctive of 
the verb To Be is he ; and it does not chan-je its form for the 
person and number of any subj\^, not even for thou. 

The past subjunctive of ordinary verbs is the same as the past 
indicative, excepting the solemn style ; for in nt-ither mode does the 
verb change form for ])erson and number. The past subjunctive 



139 Tai,ks on Language — No. 21. 

always vjere, without i-cgard to person and number, except after 
the subject thou, when it is changed to ivert. 

A verb must not be supposed to be in the subjunctive mode, 
simply because it is in a conditional clause ; for the verb in such 
a clause is often in the indicative or the potential mode ; as, 

1. If \vQ^ goes to-morrow, I shall go with him. 

2. Though we could not capture the villain, we succeded in 
tracing him to his place of concealment. 

But when a verb in a conditional clause has no change for 
person and number, we parse it as a verb in the subjunctive mode. 

It is not always easy to determine whether the subjunctive or 
the ordinary form of the verb should be used in conditional clauses. 
When the condition is assumed as a fact, the verb should be in 
the indicative or the potential form ; but when the condition is 
merely supposed, and could not be true, we use the subjunctive 
form. Mr. Brown says, that a future contingency is best ex- 
pressed bj^ a verb in the subjunctive present ; and that a mere 
supposition, ^vith indefinite time, is best expressed in the subjunc- 
tive past ; as, (i) If he be but discreet, he will succeed. (2) Were 
death denied^ all men w^ould wish to die. 

The subjunctive mode never occurs except in conditional clauses. 
A clause is generally shown to be conditional bj' some such con- 
junction as if, though, or unless ,' but sometimes, as in one of the 
examples just given, the conditional character of the clause is in- 
dicated by placing the verb, or a ])art of it, before the subject. 

In most instances the verb in a conditional clause is not in 
the subjunctive mode, but after parsing it in the potential or the 
indicative mode, as the case may be, it is well to say that the 
clause is made conditional by the conjunction, or by transposition 
of the verb, whichever may be true. Perhaps, however, it would 
be better to speak of this fact in the analysis ; for examples see— 



Talks on Language. — No. 21. 130 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

'E^.—If I go^ I vjill call for ymi. 

I is Subject, and will Call is Predicate. 

If I go states a condition under which I will call. It is nn 
adverbial clause added to vjill call ; transposed, and therefore set 
off. 

If introduces the clause, and shows it to be conditional. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — If death v:ere denied^ all fneii ivoidd wish to die, 

"Were denied is a verb, regular, trans., passive voice ; sub- 
junctive mode, past tense. Verbs in this mode do not change 
their form for the person and number of their subject. 

THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

A perfect participle assumes just what a perfect tense predi- 
cates. We have need of it because \ve sometimes wish to mention 
an act incidentally, and at the same time represent it as completed. 

Since this participle is to denote completed action, it must have 
the past participle for its base, just like the perfect tenses. 

This jiarliciple, like other participles, does not indicate the 
time of its action ; but it represents the act as completed at the time 
denoted by the predicate of the clause in which it is found, whether 
that time be past, present, or future ; so it may represent any of 
the three perfect tenses ; that is, it may assume what any one of 
them could predicate. 

In the perfect tenses, the auxiliary verb have, gives the power 
of predication ; but since the perfect participle is not to predicate, 
but merely to assume the act, the auxiliary is changed to the/ar- 
tictfle of have [having], and the power of predication is thus de- 
stroyed. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

'Kx.—Hazmo- accurately taheii his hearbigs, the haughty 
bird darted nfon his victim like a7i arrozv. 

Having taken is a participle, perfect active; added to 



T3I Talks on Language. — No. 21. 

the noun bi'rd to assume an act of the bird, and represent that act 
as completed. 

General Examples. 

1. Having- seen his tricks before, I was prepared to expose him. 

2. To have lost our "way on sucha night ^vould have been cer- 
tain ruin. 

3. If thou cast us off, we must perish. 

4. A light sno^v had fallen, and it Avas a fine morning- for 
hunting- the deer. 

5. He could have found no better time to make his application. 

6. I shall have finished the volume by the first of March. 

7. M}^ opinion is sustained by Gildercross, who writes finely 
on the subject. 

S, And when Herod would have brought him forth, the same 
nig-ht Peter was sleeping between two soldiers, bound with two 
chains. 

9. If a man love me, he will keep my commandments. 

10. Because I have said these things unto you, sorrow hath 
filled your hearts. 

11. It is delightful to wander beneath the silent arches, that 
spread their lofty coronal between us and the sky. 

12. We claim, sir, to have faithfulh' obeyed your orders. 
i^. My lord, I came to see your father's funeral. 

14. Finally, my brethren, be strong in the Lord, and in the 
power of his might. 

15. He went into the house of one of the Pharisees to eat bread. 

16. He th It humbleth himself shall be exalted. 

LESSON loi. 

1. How many tenses has the infinitive mode, and what are 
they ? 

2. Describe the present infinitive. 

3. What does the present perfect infinitive have for its base? 

4. What does it have for auxiliary? 



Talks on I.axguage.— Xo. 21. 132 

5. Why do ihe perfect tenses in all the modes have the past 
pai'ticiple for basis? 

6. AVhv do they employ an auxihary? 

7. What different forms of this anxiliar^ are used in the per^ 
feet tenses of the different modes? 

8. How does a verb in the infinitive mode resemble a participle? 

9. What may be said with respect to the variation of its form ? 
ID. How does the infinitive differ from the participle? 

11. In w^hat offices ma^'^ it be used? 

12. Describe all the tenses of the indicative mode. 

13. Describe all the tenses of the potential mode. 

LESSON 102. 

1. Describe that peculiarity of the verb which is called the 
subjunctive mode. 

2. How many ttnses has the subjunctive mode? 

3. What are they? 

4. Describe them. 

5. Ho^v does the present tense of ordinary verbs in the sub- 
junctive mode differ from their present tense in the indicative? 

6. Describe the present subjunctive of the verb To Be. 

7. Ho\v does the past subjunctive of ordinary verbs compare 
with their past indicative? . 

S. Describe the past subjunctive of the verb To Be. 
9. AVhy must we not suppose a verb to be in the subjunctive 
mode simply because it is the verb of a conditional clause? 

10. When is a verb realh- in the subjunctive mode? 

ir. Give examples of verbs in each tense of the subjunctive 
mode. 

12. Give examples of conditional clauses that have a verb in 
the indicative or the potential mode. 

LESSON 103. 

1. AVhen should tl:e verb of a condition;.! clause 1^ put in the 
indicative mode? 

2. When is it usualh- better to put the verb of a conditional 



133 Talks on Language. — Xo. 21. 

clause in the subjunctive mode? 

3. What does Goold Brown sav is best expressed in the sub- 
junctive past tense? 

4. What does he say is best expressed in the subjunctive pres- 
ent? 

5. What are the only chiuses in which the subjunctive mode 
is found ? 

6. How are clauses shown to be conditional? 

7. What does a perfect participle do? 

8. Why do we have need of such a participle? 

9. What must this participle have for its basis? 

10. Why may any of the three perfect tenses be represented bv 
one perfect participle? 

11. How is the auxiliary of the perfect participle changed frojji 
that of the perfect tenses, and why? 

LESSOJV 104. 

1. Parse the participles in sentences i, 2, and S. 

2. Analyze 4, 7, and 8. 

3. Parse the verbs in 2, 3, 5, and 6. 

4. Parse the pronouns in 11. 

LESSON 103. 

1. Analyze sentences 10 and 16. 

2. Parse the first verb in 8, and both verbs in 9, and 16- 

3. Parse the infinitives and participles in ii, 12, 13, and 15. 

4. Parse brethren in 14, and that in 16. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 22. 



THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

It is sometimes desirable to represent an act as unfinished, and 
continuing at the lime referred to. This demand is met by what 
is called the Progressive Form of the Verb. 

The present active participle may be called the progressive 
participle ; for it is what is always used to denote progressive 
action. In everA"^ mode and tense, it is the basis of tne progress- 
ive form. For auxiliary, it has the verb To Be, in all the vari- 
ous forms which that verb takes in the different modes and tenses. 

By this it may be seen that the progressive form is very eas- 
ily made. All we have to do, is to make the tense-forms of the 
verb To Be, in any given mode, and then put after them the pres- 
ent active participle of the verb whose progressive forms we wish 
to make. 

Thus we see that the progressive form consists of two parts ; 
namely, the progressive participle, and the copula. The parti- 
ciple denotes the action we wish to predicate, and represents it as 
progressing ; Ihe copula gives the power of predication, and in- 
dicates the time when the act is, was, or Avill be, progressing-. 

The past tense of the copula shows that the act was progress- 
ing in the past ; as, " He was writing ; " or, "They w ere writing." 

The present tense of the copula shows that the act is pro- 
gressing at the time of speaking ; and the future tense of the 
copula predicts that the act will be progressing in the future. 

The present perfect tense of the copula sliows that the act 
has been progressing, but has now come to an end. 

The past perfect of the copula shows that a progressive action 
came to an end in the past ; and the future perfect predicts that 
It will be complete at a point of time in the future. 

THE PASSIVE FORM. 

The passive participle is the basis of the passive form ; while 
the copula is used as auxiliary, the same as in the progressive 



135 Talks on Language. — No- 22. 

form. If to the following- tenses of the copula we iidd the pro- 
gressive participle, we shall have the progressive form of the verb 
whose participle we add ; and if instead of adding the progressive 
participle we add the passive, we shall have the passive form of 
the verb throughout. 

Tense Forms of To Be. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — Am, is, or are 

Past " Was or were 

Future " Shall be or will be 

Pres. Perfect. — Have bee7i or has been 

Past " Had beeti 

Future " Shall have been or xvill have been 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. — May be, can be, etc. 

Past " Could be 

Pr. Per. " May have been 

Past " " Should have been 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — Be 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — To be 

Pres. Per. " To have beeti 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — Be 

Past " Were 

PARTICIPLES. 



Present Active. — Being 

Perfect " Having been- 



Talks ox Language. — No. 22. 136 

THE EMPHATIC FORM. 

The emphatic form is found m onlv two modes, ^ — the indicative 
and ihe imperative. It is used when we Vx-Jsh to express a 
thouoht with more than usual earnestness. It never occurs in 
any tense except the present and the past. For basis it employs 
the name -form of the verb (with to dropped) ; and for auxiliary, 
either the present or the past tense of the verb do. 

Examples. 

Common Forvt. Emphatic Form. 

Pr. Tense. — I believe, I d.O helieve. 

Past " I vjent, I did go. 

In asking- a question, we put the first w^ord of the verb (or 
of the predicate) before the subject ; but the present and past indic- 
ative, m the common form, each consists of a single word. An- 
cientlv, the entire verb was put before the subject in such cases, 
but now we use the emphatic form, and put the auxiliar}^ before 
the subject. The ancient stvle may still be used in poetry, or 
m treating of ver^- solemn subjects. 

For the same reason as given above, the emphatic form is used 
Avhen we wish to deny something. 

Examples. 

Ancient Style. Moder?i Style. 

Belief est thou the prophets? Do 3'ou believe the prophets? 
Heard you that whisper? Did 5'ou hear that whisper? 

I doubt not. I do not doubt. 

I heard it not. I did not hear it. 

In all these cases where do or did is employed, the verb is 
said to be in the emphatic form. 

THE SOLEMN STYLE. 

The solemn style is employed in thc^ible and in other sacred 
Avritings. It may be used in emotional poetry, or when writing 



137 Talks on Language. — No. 22. 

on any solemn or very serious subject. In this style thou is used 
instead oiyou as the subjective form, in the second person, sing-ular 
number; ihy or thine, instead oi yoin' or yours, in the possessive 
form ; and thee, instead of yozi, in the objective form.. Thou, 
as subject, requires its verb to end in /, st, or est, as already no- 
ticed in Talk 13. In the third person singular number hath is 
sometimes used instead of has, doth instead of does, etc. In the 
second person singular number, j/^ should be used as the subjective 
form, instead oi you. The objective form in the plural number 
is yo7i, the same as in the ordinary style. The Quakers, or 
Friends, employ the solemn style in ordinar}^ conversation ; but 
not unfrequently they commit the error of using thee instead of 
thou as subject of a sentence. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — He will soon be crossing the Atlantic. 

"Will "be crossing is a verb, reg., trans., active v. ; indie, 
m., future t., progressive form. Verbs in this tense do not change 
their form for the person and number of their subject. 

Kx. — He 7night have been doing good -Lvhile he was thus 
wastiiig his time. 

Might have been doing is a verb, irreg., trans., active 
V. ; potential m., past perfect tense, progressive form. Verbs 
in this mode do not change their form for person and number. 

Ex. — The ship may have been vjrecked. 

May have been wrecked is a verb, reg., trans., pas- 
sive V. ; poten. m., present perfect tense. Verbs in this mode 
do not change their form for the person and number of their sub- 
ject. 

Ex. — Do speak to the lad. 

Do speak is a verb, irrcg., intrans. ; imperative m., pres- 
ent t., emphatic form. Verbs in this mode do not change their 



Talks on Language.— No. 22. 138 

form for person and number. 

Ex. — To have been listenmg would have been better. 

To have "been listening is a verb, reg., intran. ; infin- 
itive mode, present perfect tense, progressive form. It is here 
nsed to name an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. As 
a noun, it is 3d per., sing, n., neu. g. ; and subject of the sentence. 

Would have been is a verb, irreg., cop.; poten. m., past 
perfect tense. Verbs in this mode do not change form for person 
and number. 

Ex. — If I were -wi'iting the letter^ I should not mention the 
fact of his haviiig been seen behind the counter. 

"W^ere "writing is a veib irreg., trans., active v. ; subjunc- 
tive mode, past tense, progressive form. Verbs in this mode do 
not change form for the person and number of their subject. 

Having been seen is a participle, perfect passive ; it is 
here used to name an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun. 
As a noun it is neu. g., 3d per., sing, n., and object of the prep- 
osition of. 

Remark. — In the last example, his is added to the noun hav- 
ing been seen, to tell whose (to whom the act pertains), and is 
therefore put in the possessive form. 

General Examples. 

1. If we must err, it is better to err on the side of generosity. 

2. Having been in the saddle all day, the trooper slept soundly 
at night. 

3. Vou c;in be thinking while you work. 

4. To have been discovered would have sealed our fate. 

5. We had been harassed throughout the day, and now it was 
our sad fortune to pass a sleepless night. 

6. He will have been sleeping in his grave for forty years 
when the next jubilee is celebrated. 

7. If he were sleeping, we might be comforted. 



139 Talks on Language — No- 22. 

S. We have been expecting you since the morning- broke. 

9. The old chief has been gazing- at the opposite shore ever 
since his canoe came in sight. 

10. Our work v^dll not be completed until the harvest is gath- 
ered. 

11. How long, ancient mariner, hast thou been sailing on this 
troubled sea? 

12. And when they had laid many stripes upon them, they cast 
them into prison, charging the jailer to keep them safely. 

13. Ye also have seen me, and believe not. 

14. Where art thou wandering, sad mourner. 

15. If you had been watching, the accident might have been 
]:)revented. 

16. He will be crossing the sea before we shall meet again. 

LESSON 106. 

1. What demand is met by the pi-ogressive form of the verb? 

2. What may the present active participle be called? 

3. Why is this name appropriate? 

4. How is this participle used in the progressive form? 

5. What has it for auxiliary? 

6. How, then, may the progressive form be easily made? 

7. Of what two parts does the progressive form consist? 

8. What purpose is served by the participle ? 

9. What is done by the copula? 

10. When the past tense of the copula is used in the proirress- 
ive form, what does it show? 

It. What is shown by the present tense of the copala, when 
used in the same way? 

12. What by the future? 

13. What is shown by the present perfect tense of the copula, 
when used in the progressive form? 

14. What by the past perfect? 

15. What is done by the future perfect tense of the copula, 
when used in the same way? 



Talks ox Language. — No. 22. 140 

LESS O A J 07. 

1. What is the basis of the passive form? 

2. What is its auxiliary? 

3. Make all the tense-forms of the verb To Be in the differ- 
ent modes and tenses. 

4. Now Avhat must be added to these tense-forms in order to 
make the progressive form cf any verb, throughout all the modes 
and tenses? 

5. What must be added to these same tense-forms in order to 
make the passive voice of any verb, in all the modes and tenses? 

6. Make the passive and the progressive forms of the verb 
" strike," in the indicative mode. 

LESSON 108. 

1. 'SVhen do we use the emphatic form? 

2. In what mode is it found? 

3. In what tenses of the indicative mode is it found? 

4. How is this form constructed? Give examples. 

5. Why is the emphatic form often used in asking questions, 
:md in making a denial ? 

6. What was the ancient style of asking questions when the 
tense-form consisted of but a single word? 

7. When may the ancient form still be used ? 

8. Where may the solemn st^-le be found? 

9. In what kinds of writing raa3'' it still be used? 

10. Describe the pronouns used in the solemn style. 

11. What changes are required in the verb? 

LESSON lOQ. 

1. Analyze sentences i, 5, and 9. 

2. Parse the verbs in i, 4, 5, 6, and 7. 

3. Parse the participle in 2, and the first verb in 3 and S. 

LESSON no. 

1. Analyze ii, 12, 13, 15, and 16. 

2. Parse the verbs in 10, 11, 14, 15, and 16. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE. -No. 23. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE TENSE-FORMS. 
Common Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative.— The simplest form of the verb. 
Potential. — The name -form without to, with may^ can, or 
must as auxiliary. 

Imperative. — The name -form without to. 
Infinitive. — The name -form. 
Subjunctive. — The name -form without to. 

PAST TENSE. 

Indicative. — In all regular verbs, the present tense with ed 
added. 

Potential. — The name form without to, with might, could, 
would, or should, as auxiliary. 

Subjunctive. — Has the same form as the past plural indica- 
tive. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Indicative. — The name-form without to, with shall or will 
as auxiliary. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Indicative. — Has the past active participle for basis, and the 
present indicative of "to have" as auxiliary. 

Potential. — The past active participle as basis, and the 
present potential of "to have" as auxiliary. 

Infinitive. — The past active participle as basis, and the pres- 
ent infinitive of "to have" as auxiliary. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Indicative. — The past active participle as basis, and the past 



Talks on I-anguage.— No. 23. 142 

ijidicative of "to have " as auxiliary. 

Potential.— The past active participle ris basis, and the past 
poteutial oi. "to have" as auxiliary. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Indicative. — The past active participle as basis, and the fut- 
ure indicative of "to have" as auxiliary. 

Progressive Form. 

Indicative. — Has the present active participle for basis, and 
the indicative tenses of "to be" as auxiliary. 

Potential. — The present active participle as basis and the 
})otential tenses of "to be " as auxiliary. 

Imperative. — The present active participle as basis, and the 
imperative of "to be" as auxiliary. 

Infinitive. — The present active participle as basis, and the 
infinitive tenses of "to be" as auxiliary. 

Subjunctive. — ^The present active participle as basis, and the 
sul>junctive tenses of "to be" as auxiliary. 

Passive Form. 

The passive form is made in the same way as the progressive 
form, only we, use the passive participle as basis instead of the 
present active. 

Emphatic Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative. — The name -form without to, for basis, and the 
present indicative of "to do" as auxiliary. 

Imperative. — The name -form without to, for basis, and the 
imperative of "to do" as auxiliary. 

PAST TENSE. 

Indicative. — The name -form without to, and the past indic- 
ative of "to do" as auxiliary. 



143 Tai.ks on Language. — No. 23. 

CONDENSED CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 

A SYSTEMATIC arrangement of all the forms of the verb in 
its various modes and tenses is called the COnj Ugation of the 
verb. The diagram inserted between pages 145 and 146 is 
meant to show at a glance all the forms of the verb and its parti- 
ciples. 

In each tense we give, first, the common form, and immedi- 
ately below it, the progressive and the passive; also the emphatic 
wherever it occurs. 

There are four ways of reciting from this diagram : — 

1. Following the top line through from left to right, we find 
all the tenses of the indicative mode, common form ; and the 
second, third, and fourth lines followed through in the same way 
give in succession the progressive, passive, and emphatic forms 
of the same mode. Proceed in like manner with each mode, 
first giving all the tenses in the common form, then in the pro- 
gressive, etc. 

2. First give all the forms of the present tense, indicative 
mode ; then all the forms of the past tense, same mode ; thus 
passing on to the right until the conjugation of the verb in the 
indicative mode is made complete. Proceed in the same way 
with each successive mode until the entire conjugation has been 
given. 

3. Give the common form of the present indicative ; then the 
common form of the potential present, and so down the left hand 
column until the common form in the present tense of all the 
modes has been given. Then following down the second col- 
umn, give the common form in the past tense of all the modes, 
and proceed in the same w^ay w^ith column after column through- 
out all the tenses. Then go back and go through the progressive 
form in the same way, and so on until all the forms have been 
given. 

4. Give all the forms in the present indicative, and then all 
the forms in the present potential, and so on down the left hand 



Talks on Language. — No. 23. 144 

column throug-hout all the modes. Proceed in the same way 
\vith each of the other tenses until the conjug-ation is complete. 

All the tense forms of the verb to be may be seen in the aux- 
iliaries of the progressive and passive forms. 

Suggestion. — Every good teacher realizes the necessity of 
making his puj)ils entirely familiar with all the forms of the verb, 
their proper use, and the laws of their formation. But the common 
form of conjugation takes up so much time in the recitation, that 
many teachers feel compelled wholly or partialh- to neglect it. 

It is hoped that the method here recommended will be intireh' 
practicable ; for the complete conjugation of the verb can be de- 
liberateh' given by it in three minutes. A class that has become 
entirely familiar \vith the conjugation of the verb should be fre- 
quently reviewed until the entire subject has been so fastened in 
the mind that it can never be removed. The recitation according 
to the fourth method given above may be carried on as follows : — 

Present tense, indicative mode, see or sees ,' am seeing, is see- 
ifiar, or are seeing ; am seen, is seen, or are seen; do see or does 
see. 

Potential mode, may see, ca7i see, or must see; may be see- 
ing, etc. 

If the recitation is deliberateh^ made, with proper pauses, the 
different forms will be readily distinguished. The best way to 
save time is not by speaking rapidly, but by omitting unneces- 
sary words. 

By examining the diagram on the opposite page, it will also 
be seen that : — 

1. The Past Participle is used as basis in the common form 
of the perfect tenses and the perfect participle. 

2. The Present Active Participle is used as basis in all the 
tenses of the progressive form, and in the perfect progressive 
participle. 

3. The Passive Participle is used as basis in all the tenses of 
the passive form, and in the perfect passive participle. 



145 Talks on Language. — No. 23, 

4. The Na^ne-form without to is used as basis in the future in- 
dicative and in the present and past potential. It constitutes 
the on] J?-' tense of the imperative, and the present tense of the sub- 
junctive. 

The Name-fovm complete constitutes the present tense of the 
infinitive mode. 

5. The verb To Have is used as auxiliai-y in the perfect tenses 
and the perfect participle, common form. 

6. The verb To Be is used as auxiliary in the progressive and 
passive forms. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Note. — Since irregular verbs have no definite Avay of forming 
their past tense and past participle, it is necessary to have a table 
to show how these parts are made ; for without such aid there 
would be no certainty of getting the right form for many of the 
tenses. In forming any of the perfect tenses or the perfect par- 
ticiple of an irregular verb, reference should always be had to the 
following list, unless the writer is certain that he knows the right 
form for the past participle. Care should also be taken with 
the past tense of irregular verbs. 

When more forms than one are given for the past tense or 
past participle, that which stands first is to be preferred. 



Present Tense. 

Abide 

Am 07' be 

Awake 
i Bear (to bring forth) 
^ Bear (to sustain) 

Beat 

Begin 

Bend, tin- 

Bereave 

Beseech 



Past Tense. 

abode 

was 

awoke, awaked 

bore 

bore 

beat 

began 

bent, bended 

bereft, bereaved 

besought 



Past Participle. 

abode 

been 

awaked 

born 

borne 

beaten, beat 

begun 

bent 

bereft, bereaved 

besought 



DIAGRAM OF TENSE A 


TENSES— 


Present. 


Past. 


I 


Indicative Mode. 


See or Sees. 
Am, is, or are 

seeing. 

Am, is, or are 

seen. 

Bo see or does see. 


Saw. 

Was or were 

seeing. 

Was or were seen. 

Bid see. 


S 
Shali 

Ska 


Potential Mode. 


May see. 
May be seeing. 

May be seen. 


Might see. 
Might be seeing. 

M'^ght be seen. 




Imperative Mode. 


See. 
Be seeing. 

Be seen. 
Bo see, etc. 






Infinitive Mode. 


To see. 
To be seeing. 

To be seen. 






Subjunctive Mode. 


If I, he, we, you, or they— 

See. 

Be seeing. 

Be seen. 


Ill, he, we, you, or they— 

SaiD. 

Were seeing. 

Were seen. 




Participles. 


Seeing. 
Seen. 


Seen. 
Seen. 





IS AND PARTICIPLES. 


.E. 


Present Perfect. 


Past Perfect. 


Future Perfect. 


ee. 
eeing. 

seen. 


Have or has seen. 
Have or has been 

seeing. 

Have or has been 

seen. 


Had seen. 
Had been seeing. 

Had been seen. 


Shall have seen. 
Shall have been 

seeing. 

Shall have been 

seen. 




May have seen. 
May hare been 

seeing. 

May have been 

seen. 


M'rqht have seen. 
Might have been 

seeing. 

Might have been 

seen. 














To have seen. 

To have been 

see^lng. 

To have been 
seen. 
















Having seen. 

Having been 

seeing. 

Having been seen. 







Talks 


ox Language. — No. 


23. 146 


Present Tevse. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted ' 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind, im-, re- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred : 


Bring- 


brought 


brought 


BuiJd, re-, iip- 


built, builded 


built, builded 


Burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Can 
Cast 


could 
cast 




cast 


Catch 


caught 


caught 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


^ Cleave (to adhere) 


cleaved 


cleaved 


' Cleave (to split) 


cleft 


cleft, cleaved 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed^ clad 


clothed, clad 


Come, be-, over- 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare (to venture) 


durst, dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt, dealer 


dealt, dealed 


Dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


Do, im-, mis-, orer- 


did 


done 


Draw, with- 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 



147 Talks on Language. — No. 23. 

Preseiit Te7ise, Past Tense. Past Participle. 

Drink ' drank drunk, drank 

Drive drove driven 

Dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled 



Eat 



ate 



eaten 



Fall, be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


foug-ht 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


lied 


fled 


Fling- 


ilung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forbid 


forbade 


forbidden 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Freig-ht 


freighted 


fraught, freighted 


Get, be-, for- 


got 


g-ot, gotten 


Gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


Gird, be-, itn-, eii- 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


Give, fo7'-, mis- 


gave 


given 


Go, fore-, under - 


went 


g-one 


Grave, en- 


graved 


graven, graved 


Grind 


ground 


g-round 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang-* 


hung- 


hung 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear, over- 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


heaved, hove 


heaved, hoven 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 



'^Haiig, to take awav life by hanging, is regular. 





Talks 


ON Languagh.- 


-No. 23. i^S 


Presoil '. 


Tense. 


Pasi 


Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Hide 




hid 




hidden, hid 


Hold, be- 


, zyU/i-, up 


- held 




held, holden 


Hurt 




hurt 




hurt « 


Keep 




kept 




kept 


Kneel 




knelt, 


kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


Knit 




knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


Know, fore- 


knew 




known 


Lade (to ] 


load) 


laded 




laden 


Lay (to place), i)i- 


laid 




laid 


Lead, mis 




led 




led 


Leave 




left 




left 


Lend 




lent 




lent 


Let 




let 




let 


Lie (to recline) 


lay 




lain 


Light 




lighted. 


, lit 


lighted, lit 


Load, lui- 


, over- 


loaded 




loaded, laden 


Lose 




lost 




lost 


:SIake 




made 




made 


May 




might 








Mean 




meant 




meant 


]Meet 




met 




met 


Mow 




mowed 




mown, mowed 


Must 
Ought 




















Pay, re- 




paid 




paid 


Pen (to inclose) 


denned 


, pent 


penned, pent 


Put 




put 




put 


Quit 




quit, qi 
quoth 


aitted 


quit, quitted. 






Read 




read 




read 


Rend 




rent 




rent 



'49 


Talks 


ON Language.— 


No. 23. 


Present 


Tense. 


Past Tense, 


Past Participle. 


Rid 




rid 


rid 


Ride 




rode 


rode, ridden 


Ring 




rang, rung 


rung 


Rise, a- 




rose 


risen 


Rive 




rived 


riven, rived 


Run, out 




ran 


run 


Saw 




sawed 


sawn, sawed 


Sa}^ nn-, 


gain- 


said 


said 


See, fore 




saw 


seen 


Seek 




sought 


sought 


Seethe 




seethed 


seethed, sodden 


Sell 




sold 


sold 


Send 




sent 


sent 


Set, he- 




set 


set 


Sit (to rest) 


sat 


sat 


Shake 




shook 


shaken 


Shall 
Shape, m 




should 
shaped 




xis- 


shaped, shapen 


Shave 




shaved 


shaved, shaven 


Shear 




sheared 


shorn, sheared 


Shed 




shed 


shed 


Shine 




shone, shined 


shone, shined 


Shoe 




shod 


shod 


Shoot, over- 


shot 


shot 


Show 




showed 


shown, showed 


Shred 




shred 


shred 


Shrink 




shrunk, shrank 


shrunk, shrunken 


Shut 




shut 


shut 


Sing 




sang, 'sung 


sung 


Sink 




sunk, sank 


sunk 


Slay 




slew t ■ 


slain 


Sleep 




slept 


slept 


Slide 




slid 


slidden, slid 



Talks ' 


ON Langl 


JAGE.— N( 


). 23. 150 


Present Tense, 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Sling- 


slung 




slung 


Slink 


slunk 




slunk 


Slit 


slit 




slit, slitted 


Smite 


smote 




smitten 


Sow (to scatter) 


sowed 




sown, sowed 


Speak, be- 


spoke 




spoken 


Speed 


sped 




sped 


Spell, mis- 


spelled. 


spelt 


spelled, spelt 


Spend, mis- 


spent 




spent 


Spill 


spilt, sp 


illed 


spilt, spilled 


Spin 


spun 




spun 


Spit* 


spit 




spit 


Split 


split 




split 


Spread, over-, be- 


spread 




spread 


Spring 


sprang. 


sprung 


sprung 


Stand, with-, under - 


stood 




stood 


Stave 


staved. 


stove 


staved, stove 


Stay 


staid, stayed 


staid, sta^-ed 


Steal 


stole 




stolen 


Stick 


stuck 




stuck 


Sting 


stung 




stung 


Stride, be- 


strode, ; 


strid 


stridden, strid 


Strike 


struck 




struck, stricken 


String 


strung 




strung 


Strive 


strove 




striven 


Strow or strew, be- 


strowed 


, strewed - 


^ strown, strowed 
) strewn, strewed 


Swear, for- 


swore 




sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


Sweep 


swept 




. sw-ept 


Swell 


sw^elled 




swollen, swelled 


Swim 


swam 




swum 



"'Spit, to put on a spit, is regular. 



•5f 



'1 


'AI.KS < 


3N Language.— No 


' 23. 


Present Tense 




Past Te7ise. 


Past Participle. 


Swing 

\re-^ over- 
Take, mis-, under-, be- 


swung 
• took 


swung 
t;iken 


Teach, u?i-, 7ms- 


taught 


taught 


Tear 




tore 


torn 


Tell, >r^- 




told 


told 


Think, be- 
Thrive 




thought 
throve, thrived 


thought 
thriven, thrived 


Throw, over- 




threw 


thrown 


Thrust 




thrust 


thrust 


Tread, re- 




trod 


trodden, trod 


Wax 




waxed 


waxed, waxen 


Wear 




wore 


worn 


Weep 
Wet 




wept 

wet, wetted 


wept 

wet, wetted 


Whet 




whetted, whet 


whetted, whet 


Will 




would 
won 




Win 




won 


Wind, un- 




wound 


wound 


Work 




worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


Wot 

Wring 
Write 




wist 

wrung 

wrote 






wrung 
written 



RpZMARKS. — Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular 
form are said to be redundant. 

Verbs that do not have all the principal p-drts,— present tense, 
past tense, and past participle, — are said to be defective. 

LESSON III. 

1. Describe the present tense of the indicative mode. Of 
the potential mode. The imperative. The infinitive. The 
subjunctive. 

2. Describe the })ast tense in each of the modes where it occurs. 



Talks on Language. —No. 23. ii;2 

3. Describe the future tense. 

4. Describe the present perfect tense in each of the modes 
where it occurs. 

5. Describe the past perfect tense of the potential mode. Of 
the indicative. 

6. How should the future perfect tense be formed ? 

LESS ON^ 112. 

1. How do we make the prog-ressive form in the indicative 
mode ? 

2. How do we make the progressive form in the potential 
mode? In the imperative mode? In the infinitive? The 
subjunctive ? 

3. How do we make the passive form in all the modes? 

4. What is the emphatic form of the present tense in the in- 
dicative mode? What is it in the imperative mode? 

5. What is the emphatic form of the past tense? 

6. Give all the tense-forms of the verb To "Write, in the pro- 
gressive form of all the modes. 

7. Give all the tense-forms of the same verb, in the i^assive 
form of all the modes. 

LESSON 113. 

1. Of what does the future tense consist in the common form? 

2. How do we make the future perfect tense in the common 
form? 

3. What is the basis of all the perfect tenses in the common 
form? 

^. Wh}- is this so? 

5. Give all the tense -forms of the verb To Strike, in the common 
form, and in all the modes. 

LESSON 114. 

1. What name is given to the systematic arrangement of all 
the forms of the verb in its various modes and tenses? 

2. In the conjugation of the verb, what uses do we find for 



153 Talks on Language. — No. 23. 

the past participle? 

3. What uses do we find for the present active participle? 

4. For what purposes is the passive participle used? 

5. What are the different uses of the name form of the verb? 

6. In what instance is it used in its complete form? 

7. What are the chief auxiliaries employed in the conjugation 
of the verb? 

8. Where do we employ the auxiliary To Have? 

9. When do we use the verb To Be as an auxiliary'? 

10. What constitutes the perfect participle in the common form ? 
In the progressive form ? In the passive form ? 

LESSON IIS. 
I. Give the complete conjugation of the verb To Choose, in- 
cluding its participles. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE — No. 24. 



THE PHRASE ABSOLUTE. 

We have seen how verbs are changed to participles by destroy- 
ing their power of predication. In the same way a clause may 
be changed to a phrase. Take the following sentence for an 
example : — 

Darkness came on, and we encamped for the night. 

The two principal clauses of this sentence are closely related, 
and separated by the comma. By changing the verb to a par- 
ticiple, the power of predication is destroyed, and the clause be- 
comes a phrase. Thus: ^^ Darkness coming oti, we," etc. 

The clause was independent, atnd so is the phrase that takes 
its place : that is, it does not depend on any other word, does 
not limit anj'^ other word ; or, as we say, it is absolved from any 
dependence on any word, and is therefore called a Phrase Absolute. 

The noun or pronoun which is the chief element of the phrase 
is often called the nominative absolute, and takes the same form 
that it would take if it were the subject of a sentence. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Ex. — The tall moujitam rose before us, its granite cliffs 
glistejiing in the morning sunlight. 

Mountain is the subject, and rose is the predicate. 

Before us, since it tells where the mountain rose, is an adver- 
bial phrase, added to the verb rose. 

Its granite cliffs glistening ijt the mortiing su7ilight adds an- 
other thought concerning the mountain. It is a phrase absolute, 
and therefore set off by the comma. 

Cliffs is a noun, 3rd., pi., neut. ; independent with a participle, 
and therefore it takes the same form that it would take if it were 
subject of a clause. 

Grlistening is a participle, present active, intransitive, and 
added to the noun cliffs. 



155 Talks on Language. — No. 24, 

In some instances the noun is dropped, and the participle with 
its Hmitations is all that remains of the clause. Such a phrase 
is called a Participial Phrase Absolute. It differs from an ordi- 
nary participial phrase, in that it is not added to anj'^ noun, either 
expressed or understood. It is general in its application, and 
to attribute its action to any particular object would spoil the 
meaning-. 

MODEL. 

P2x. — Considering the meager advantages ivhick he has 
enjoyed^ his progress has been remarkable. 

Considering the meager advantages vjhicJi he has enjoyed in- 
cidentally gives a thought which is the cause of the conclusion 
stated in the principal clause of this sentence. It is a participial 
phrase absolute, and set off by the comma. 

Considering is a participle, present active, transitive. It 
is the chief element of a phrase absolute, and is therefore inde- 
pendent, not being added to any noun or pronoun. 

THE INFINITIVE IN THE PREDICATE. 

The infinitive is sometimes used with the copula to make the 
predicate, as may be seen from the following examples: — 

1. We are to sail next week. 

2. The machine was to have been completed some time ago. 

Are to sail predicates a present determination with respect to 
a future action. Ai'e is the copula, and to sail is a present infini- 
tive, used with the copula to form the predicate. 

Was to have been completed predicates what was settled or 
determined with respect to a past action. Was is the copula, 

and to have been completed is the present perfect infinitive in the 
passive form. 

MODEL FOR PAKSING. 

Was to have been completed is a verb, reg., trans., 
passive voice ; indicative mode, past tense ; vjas is used instead 



Talks on Language.— No. 24. 156 

of zvei-e because the subject is in the third person, singular number, 

ORDINARY PHRASE IN PREDICATE. 

The phrase composed of a preposition and its object is often 
used with the copula to make the predicate. Thus: — 

1. We are in good health. 

2. He is without money. 

In the first example, in good health means the same as healthy. 
In the second sentence, is rjithout money means the same as is 
moneyless. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — We are in danger of trusting too much to our ozvn vjisdom. 

We is the subject, and are i?i danger is the predicate. 

Are is the copula, and in danger is used with the copula to 
form the predica,te. It denotes a predicated condition of the 

subject. 

Of trusting too much^ etc., describes the danger here meant, 
by telling to what it pertains. It is an adjective phrase, added 
to the noun dajiger ,' restrictive, and therefore not set off. 

To our own zvisdoni tells in what direction Ave are in danger 
of trusting too much. It is an adverbial phrase, added to the 
participle trusting. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Are is a verb, irreg., copula ; ind. m., pr. tense. Are is 
used instead of is or am, because the subject is neither in the first 
nor third person, sing, number. 

In is a preposition ; it shows the relation of the danger to 
the persons represented by vje. 

Danger is a noun, common, abstract, 3rd. per., sing, num., 
and object of the preposition in. 

THE VERBS SIT, SET, LIE, AND LAY. 

To Sit and To Lie are intransitive verbs, and should not be 



157 Talks on Language. — No. 24, 

used when the action is represented as being received by anything- ; 
while the verbs To Set and To Li}^ are transitive, and should be 
used in preference to the former whenever the action is represented 
as being received by something. 

Frequent errors are made in the use of these words, and the 
chief source of the difficult}- seems to lie in the fact th)t their 
conjugation is not well understood. The past tense of the in- 
transitive verb Lie is the same as the present tense of the transitive 
\'erb Lay, and the past tense and past participle of the verb Set 
are the same as its present tense. Careful reference to the list 
of irregular verbs, together with a due consideration oE the thcught 
to be expressed, will i)revent mistiikes in the use of these words. 
General Examples. 

1. The tall mcuntain rose before us, its granite cliffs glistening 
in the morning sun, 

2. The services are to be held at ten o'clock to-morrow. 

3. The ship having been carefully prepared for action, the men 
were ordered to lie down upon the deck. 

4. Having prepared his vessel for action, the captain awaited 
in silence the approach of the enem}-. 

5. Still above us is a wild chaos of mountains, their sides 
broken into ravines. 

6. The river beds are far below the level of the plain, the 
whole country being intersected by deep impassable ravines. 

7. The general was always in the saddle before sunrise. 

8. A grand celebration is to be held in honor of St. John the 
Baptist. 

9. Crossing the stream, and ascending the opposite bank by a 
winding path, we came to an old stone house, the birth-place, 
and for many years the home, of one of our nation's great men. 

10. As the sun sank low in the west, the lone mountain pre- 
sented a grand sight, its feet dipped in a sea of blood, and its 



Talks on Language. — No. 2^, 15S 

head capped with rosy clouds. 

II. Generally speaking-, he is a kind friend and a good neighbor. 

13. Making- due allowance for losses, the g"ain may still be es- 
timated at several hundred dollars a month. 

LBSSOJ^ it6. 

I. Show by example how the changing- of a verb to a particij)le 
destroys its power of predication. 

• 2. Show how a clause may be, in a similar way, changed to 
a phrase absolute. 

3. How may -^ve see that the phrase thus formed must be in- 
dependent ? 

4. Why is it called a phrase absolute? 

5. What name is often given to the noun or pronoun that is 
the chief element of such a phrase? 

6. What form must such a noun or pronoun take? 

7. Analyze sentences i, 3, and 4, of the general examples. 

LESSON 117. 

1. Parse the participles in sentences i,'3, and 4. 

2. Parse cliffs, ships, to lie, and approach. 

3. How do we form a participial phrase absolute? 

4. How does this phrase differ from the ordinary participial 
phrase ? 

5. "Why would the meaning- of such a participle be spoiled by 
attributing- its action to a particular object? 

6. Analyze sentences 11 and 12, and parse the participles in 
them. 

7. Analyze sentence 9. 

S. parse birth-place and home. 

LESSON 118. 

1. Analyze sentence 2, and parse its verb. 

2. Analyze sentences 7 and 8. 

3. Parse the verbs in both these sentences. 



!59 Talks on Language.— No. 24. 

4. Parse iii and saddle in the 7th, and Baptist in the Sth. 

LESSON iiq, 

I. Give the complete conjugation of the verb To Leave. 

LESSON 120. 

I. Correct the following- sentences, first telling what is wrong- 
in each, and w^hy it is wrong ; and then telling how each error 
should be corrected:— 

1. After I laid down to sleep, I remembered my strange ride, 
and how I had set on the same seat with the Duchess' daughter. 

2. She lays on the sofa half the day, and then sets up half 
the night. 

J. He has ran through with all the monej' his father left him, 
and now lays idly about, too shiftless to work, 

4. Jack and me went into the store, and set down on a bench. 

J". I knew it ^vas him as soon as I seen him come around the 
corner. 

6. The teacher made Nancy and me lie our books down, and 
set up straight, with our arms folded. 

2. Analyze sentence 5, and parse chaos, sides, and broken. 

3. Analyze sentence 6, and parse the participle. 

4. Analyze sentence 10. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.-No. 25. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES RESUMED. 

Adjective clauses are not always introduced by relative i)r<)- 
nouns, as may be seen from the following examples: — 

1. I shall never forg-et the day when my mother died. 
3. 'We saw the cliff where the travelers fell, 

Wke?i tny 'mother died tells what day I remember, and vjliere 
the travelers fell tells what cliff is meant. They are bolh adjective 
clauses, restrictive, and therefore not set off ; but neither of them 
has a relative pronoun in it. V/hen and ivhere are usuall5' mere 

adverbs, but in this instance they are plainly something more, as 
may be seen by putting the phrase oti which in place of whe?i, and 
from which in place of ivhere. Now these phrases are both ad- 
verbial, but each contains a relative pronoun which alludes to an 
antecedent noun to tell what the adjective clause describes. But 
when and 7vhere are just equivalent to these phrases ; so it must 
be that each does the work of an adverb, and of a relative showing 
the relation of its clause to the thing which the clause describes. 
For this reason these words, when used in this way, are called 
Relative Adverbs. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Se?tte7ice 2. 

We is the subject, and saw is the predicate. 

The cliff where the travelers fell tells what we saw ; it is an 
objective element, added to the verb saw. 

Where the travelers fell tells w^hat cliff is meant ; it is an 
adjective clause, added to the noun cliffy restrictive, and therefore 
not set off. 

Where alludes to the cliff to tell what the clause describes ; 
travelers is the subject of the clause, and fell is the predicate. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Where is a relative adverb. As a relative, it shows its 



i6i Talks on Language. — No. 25. 

clause to be subordinate to the noun clijf j as an adverb, it slightly 
modifies the verb fell. 

RELATIVE PRONOUN USED ALSO AS 
AN ADJECTIVE. 

Some pronouns may be used in such a way as not only to 
perform the office of a relation -word and a pronoun, but also that 
of an adjective at the same time. The following examples will 
illustrate this use: — 

1. Fulfill any promises which you have made. 

2. Fulfill whatever promises you have made. 

These two sentences are alike in their meaning, and by ex- 
amining them carefully it will be seen that the word zuhatever in 
the second sentence takes the place of the two words any and 
vjJiich in the first. Now which is a relative pronoun, and any 
is a limiting adjective, and since -whatever does the work of both 
of them, it seems best to parse it both as a pronoun and as an 
adjective. 

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. 

Elx. — Take ivliatever course suits you best. 

You understood is the subject, and take is the predicate. 

Whatever course suits you best tells what you are to take ; it 
is an objective element, added to the verb take. 

Whatever suits y oil best points out the course here meant ; it 
is an adjective clause, added to the noun course ^ restrictive, and 
therefore not set off. 

Whatever alludes to the noun course to tell what its clause 
describes ; it is also subject of its clause, and sjtits is the predi- 
cate. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

Whatever is a relative pronoun, used also as an adjective. 
As a relative, it shows its clause to be in a subordinate relation 
to the noun course. As a pronoun, it means the same as the 
noun course, and therefore has the same person, number, and gen- 
der. It is subject of the clause, but has only the one form. 

As an adjective, it is equivalent to any, and limits the noun 
course. 



Talks on Language. —No. 25 162 

In ?ome sentences such a pronoun as the one parsed above is, 
in its adjective use, equivalent to tlie^ iind in others to oil. 

RELATIVE PRONOUIsr REPRESENTING 
A NOUN UNDERSTOOD. 

The relative pronoun used also as an adjective, often has its 
antecedent understood, as the following examples will show :— 

1. Pay what debts you owe. 

2. Pay what you owe. 

These sentences are alike in meaning- and in construction. In 
the second, the pronoun what sustains the same relation to dehis 
understood, as it does to the same noun expressed, in the first 
sentence. 

MODEL FOR ANAI.YSIS. 

Ex. — Endeavor to hold ivhat you gain. 

Ton understood is the subject, and endeavo)- is the predicate. 

To hold zv hat you gain explains the direction of the endeavor ; 
it is an adverbial phrase, added to the verb endeavor. 

What you gain tells what you are to hold ; it is an objective 
element, added to the infinitive to hold. 

What alludes to the thing that would be named by a noun 
understood, and thus shows what its clause describes. 

Tou is the subject of the clause, gain is the predicate, and 
what is the object. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

What is a relative pronoun. As a relative, it shows its 
clause to be subordinate to a noun understood. As a pronoun, 
it represents the noun understood, and must therefore have the 
same person, number, and gender. It is object of the ^^rh gain, 
but has no change of form. 

As an adjective, it is equivalent to all or the, and limits the 
noun understood. 

Note. — Who is sometimes used instead of whoever ; as, " Who 
steals my purse, steals trash," meaning " AVhoever steals," or 
"Any person who steals," etc. 



163 Talks on Language.— No. 25. 

General Examples. 

1. The place where we first met is sacred still. 

2. The time when a ^^oung man leaves home is a critical pe- 
riod in his life. 

3. What thou doest do quickly. 

4. What preparations were necessarj' we made the day before. 

5. The spot where the first blood was shed in our revolution- 
ary strug-g-le, is marked by a granite monument, inscribed wiih the 
names of the men who fell there. 

6. In that hour when night is calmest 
Sang he from the Hebrew psalmist. 

7. He gave me half of what money he had. 

8. Into the mirror of the brook, 

Where the vain blue -bird trims his coat, 
Two tiny feathers fall and float. 

9. Take whichever you like, and I will be satisfied with the 
other. 

10. Do whatever he may, he can never wholly uproot ihe lessons 
of his youth. 

11. The day when the declaration of our independence was 
made, is celebrated every year. 

12. Each heart has its haunted chamber, w^here the silent moon- 
light falls. 

13. Whoever neglects dutv will have cause for regret. 

14. It is useless to mourn for what we can not help. 

15. What can not be cured must be endured. 

16. And then I think of one who in her youthful beauty died, 
The fair meek blossom that grew up and faded by my side. 

17. A simple name alone. 

To the great world unknown. 
Is graven here ; and "\vild flowers, rising round, 
Meek meado^v- sweet and violets of the ground. 

Lean lovingly against the humble stone. 

LESSON 121. 
I. Are adjective clauses always introduced by relative pro- 



Tat.ks ox Language. — Xo. 25. ^h:\ 

nouns? 

2. ^Vhat other words are sometimes employed for this purpose? 

3. Give examples. 

4. 'SVhat is the only office commonlv filled by tlie words tt'//tv; 
nnd v.'here ? 

5. ^\Tien these words introduce adjective clauses, what phrases 
may be put in place of them? 

6. AMien these phrases are thus substituted, what general office 
ilo they fill ? 

7. AMiat part of speech do the}- each contain? 

S. How does this pronoun introduce the adjective clause? 
9. Since each of the words vjhen and rvhere^ as used above, is 
equivalent to such a phrase, wliat Xysro offices must it perform? 

10. A^^lat name do "we g-ive to vjhen and where when used in 
this waj-? 

11. Analyze sentences i, 2, and 5, of the General Examples. 
, 12. Parse the words when and zvhere, as found in these sentences. 

LESSON T22. 
I. What three offices are sometimes performed bv a pronoun? 
.2. Give an example, 

3. How do we parse such a pronoun? \Vhy- 

4. AVrite the analysis of sentences 3 and 4. 

5. AVrite the parsing- of the pronouns in these sentences. 

6. Analyze 6 and 7. 

LESSON 123, 

1. Analyze sentences S, 9, and 11. 

2. Parse ivhere, whichever, other^ and v:heiK 

3. Parse the pronouns in sentence 10. 

LESSON 124. 

1. Analyze sentences 12, 13, and 17. 

2. Parse the pronouns and verbs in these sentences. 

LESSON 123. 

1. Analyze sentences 14, 15, and 16. 

2. Parse the verbs and pronouns. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE. -No. 26. 



PRONOUNS USED IN ASKING QUESTIONS. 

The pronouns vjho, which, and zvhat, are not unfrequently used 
to represent the person or thing- inquired for. When thus used 
in asking- questions (interrogating), they are called Interrogative 
Pronouns, 

These interrogative pronouns are the same words that are so 
much used as relative pronouns, but they can be readily distin- 
g-uished from relative pronouns by their use ; for they have no 
antecedent, either expressed or definitely understood, and they 
never show their clause to be in a subordinate relation to any word. 

The interrogative pronouns can have no definite antecedent ; 
for if the speaker or writer could name the person or thing inquired 
for, no inquiry would be necessary, and no such pronoun would 
be used. For this reason, the number and gender of an inter- 
rogative pronoun is often indefinite. 

What and tvhich, when used to introduce interrogative sen- 
tences, are frequently mere adjectives, as in the followmg ex- 
amples ! — 

1. What book is that which you hold in your hand? 

2. Which picture shall I buy? 

When the pronoun is understood after these words, they might 
still be parsed as adjectives, limiting a noun understood ; but in 
siich cases they are more commonly regarded as interrogative 
pronouns. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — Who come zvith the earl last eTe7iing ? 

WllO is a pronoun, interrogative, third person, number and 
gender indefinite ; subject of the sentence, and therefore put in 
the subjective form. 

Ex. — What ship is that lying 7iear the fort F 
Whs,t ^s an adjective, limiting ; rdded to the noun ship, to 



Talks on Language. — No, 26. 166 

make the sentence inquire for the i den tit}' of the ship. 
Ex. — What makes yon so sad F 
What i^ a pronoun, interrogative, third person, singular 
number, neuter gender. It is subject of the sentence, but has 
only the one form. 

Ex. — Who zvrote the poem you recited F— Will Carleton. 
Will Carleton is a noun, proper, 3rd. person, sing-ular num- 
ber, masculine gender ; subject of the verb vjrote understood. 

CLAUSES IN THE OFFICE OF NOUNS. 

A NOUN, or anything that takes the place of a noun, is called 
a Substantive ; so whenever a clause takes the place of a noun, 
or does the ^vork that a noun usually do s, it is called a Substan- 
tive Clause. 

The substantive clause may be subject of a sentence, as in the 
first example below ; object of a verb or participle, as in the second 
example ; object of a preposition, as in the third example ; with 
the copula in predicate, as in the fourth example ; or in apposition 
with a noun, as in the fifth example. 

Illustrative Examples. 

1. That the e7ie77iy should siir 7' ender without ji7'i7ig a gun sur- 
prised us exceeding^. 

2. I admit that zue 7nay have hee7i tv7'07ig. 

3. He was to be blamed in that he did 7iot i7ifor77i the authorities. 

4. His position ^vas that all i7i7tocent 77ie7i ought to he free. 

5. It is a common belief that 77ia7i is i77i77i07'tal by 7tature. 

The word that as used to introduce the substantive clauses 
above, shows its clause to be subordinate in rank, and is therefore 
called a sub-ordinate conjunction ; but it does not indicate the 
special relation of its clause to other words. The use of a sub- 
stantive clause is known chiefly by the place it has in the sentence. 

Substantive Clauses Introduced by ^Vho. 

The pronoun who is sometimes used to introduce a substantive 



171 Talks qn Lan-guage. — No. 26, 

10. How are they more commonl}'^ regarded when used in this 
way ? 

11. Parse iv'hat and to take in the third sentence of the General 
Examples. 

12. Parse ivhich in 5 and 7. 

13. Parse "whose and that in 4, 

14. Parse iJ^hat in 6 and S. 

LESSON 127. 

1. What is a substantive? 

2. What do we call a clause that takes the place of a noun^ 
or does the work that a noun usually does? 

3. What offices may the substantive clause fill? 

4. Give an example of each of these uses. 

5. Does the word that, as used in these examples, indicate the 
special relation of its clause to any word? 

6. Whv, then, is it called a conjunction? 

7. HoAv is the use of a substantive clause determined? 
S. Analyze 9, 11, 12, and 13. 

9. Parse that in 11, 12, and 13. 

LESSON 128, 

1. What pronoun is sometimes used to introduce a substan- 
tive clause? 

2. In what office is such a clause usually found? 

3. Give examples. 

4. Why is the pronoun, as used in these cases, called inter- 
rogative? 

5. Why can not such a pronoun be a personal pronoun ? 

6. Why can it not be regarded as a relative pronoun ? 

7. In what further particulars does it resemble an interrogative 
pronoun ? 

S. What words besides that and who may be used to introduce 
substantive clauses? 

9. Give examples of clauses used in this wa^^ 
10. What is the peculiar significance of each of the nitroduc- 



Ihls page should folioui page ::0 



Talks on Language. — No. 26. 16S 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

Ex. — The general feared that the enemy zvould discover 
our lack of ammunition. 

General is the Subject, and feared is the Predicate. 

That the enemy zuould discover^ etc., tells what the g-eneral 
feared. It is a substantive clause, an objective element added 
to the verb feared. 

That shows the clause to be subordinate in rank ; enemy is 
the subject, and zvould discover is the predicate. 

Ex. — That Peter tvas a Galileati xvas evidoit from his speech. 

That Peter vjas a Galilean is the Subject, and vjas evident is 
the Predicate. 

The subject is a substantive clause. That introduces the 
clause,^ and shows it to be subordinate. 

Peter is the subject, and vjas Galilean is the predicate. 

Ex. — Fevj zvill ever knoix) whose hand wought that design. 
A noun understood is subject of this sentence, and will know 
is the predicate. 

Whose hand wrought that desigji tells what it is that few will 
ever know. It is a substantive clause, an objective element added 
to the verb will knew. 

Hand is the subject, and wrought is the predicate. Whose 

tells to whom the hand belonged, but is ver\' indefinite in its ap- 
plication. 

Ex. — It is uncertain how W3 ought to proceed. 

It is the Subject, and is uncertain is the Predicate. 

How we ought to proceed explains what is meant by it. It 
is a substantive clause, in apposition udth the subject. 

How shows the clause to be subordinate, and directs attention 
to the manner of the action expressed in the clause, rather than 
to the act itself. 

We is the subject, and ought to proceed is the predicate. 



i<^)9 Talks on Language. — No, 26. 

Ex. — Have y 021 heard vjho is elected F 

Who is '^ pronoun, interrogative, 3rd per., sing, num., masc, 
gen. ; subject of its clause, and therefore put in the subjective form. 

Ex, — Our opi7iio72 is that the man was droruned in Lake Ki'ie, 

That is a conjunction, subordinate; it introduces a substan- 
tive clause that is used with a copula to make a predicate. 

Ex.— .S't'Wf deny that he took siich a step. 

That is a conjunction, subordinate ; it introduces a substan- 
tive clause that is object of the verb deny. 

Ex. — That he had any part i7i the matter ca7inot he proved. 

That is a conjunction, subordinate; it introduces a substan- 
tive clause that is subject of a sentence, 

Ex. — We ascertai7ied where he stayed the first 7iight, 
"Where is a conjunctive adverb. As a conjunction, it in- 
troduces a substantive clause that Is object of the verb ascertain. 
As an adverb, it slightly modifies the verb stayed. 
Ex. — He showed hozv fields zvere wo7t. 
Ho"W is a conjunctive adverb. As a conjunction, it is sub- 
ordinate ; for it introduces a clause which is object of the verb 
showed. As an adverb, it belongs to the verb 7uere iuo7i. 
General Examples. 

1. Have 3'ou heard who is to be our next president? 

2. Can you tell why the sun rises so early in summer? 

3. What part of the subject do you propose to take up next? 

4. Whose picture is that one next to the general's? 

5. Which is the most populous country of Europe? 

6. What knowledge he gains he is sure to keep. 

7. Which house is yours? 

S. AVhat building is that which we can see through that clump 



Talks ox Language.— Xo. 26. 170 

of trees? 

9. I feared that vou would not come. 

10. They tried in vain to learn why he wore a black veil, 
ri. That he will return so soon is not probable. 

12. It is a ^vell-worn maxim that honesty is the best policv. 

13. He denies that he was in the city at that time. 

14. The children know where the earliest wild flowers bloom. 

15. No one can tell when his life may close, 

17. ^Ve never knew why he always refused to speak on that 
subject. 

17. We read of a home where sorrow vrill never enter. 
iS. Blessed is the man whose God is the Lord. 

19. His trjdng- to evade our questions awakened suspicion. 

20. ^Vho fired the mag-azine could never be ascertained. 

21. I recited what I had learned. 

22. I shall never forg-et that sad morning when we six)ke our 
last farewell. 

2^^ "We ought to be thankful for \vhat a.dvantag-es we possess. 

LESSO.V126, 

1. Ix what i^eculiar way are the pronouns rr/io, -'.•hicb. and 
-zv/iot frequently used : 

2. When thus used, what are thev called? 

3. How are these words commonlv used : 

4. How mav we know when thev are relatives, and when in- 
terrog-atives ? 

5. How do these t\\T3 classes of pronouns chiefly differ? 

6. AVhy cannot an interrogative pronoun have a definite an- 
tecedent? 

7. AVhy is the number and gender of the interi-ogative pronoun 
often indefinite? 

S. Give examples in which ~vh<tt and xvhich are mere adjectives, 
though used in interrogative clauses. 

9. Ho^\- might these ^^ords be parsed even \vhen the noun is 
understood after them? 



i67 Talks on Language. — No. 26. 

clause that is object of a transitive verb; as, "I know not vjJw 
you are ;^'' "Have you learned ~iVho wrote the iievj poemf' 

In most instances, the substantive clause introduced by vjJio, 
7>jhose^ or vjhom^ would ask a question if it stood alone ; so the 
pronoun that introduces it is called an interrogative pronoun. 
This saves making a new class of pronouns ; for these words 
can not be either personal or relative pronouns, since they do not 
by their form denote their person, and do not show a clause to be 
subordinate to any antecedent noun. 

They resemble the ordinary interrogative pronoun, not only 
in that they introduce a clause, which, if it stood alone, would 
ask a question, but in that they have no antecedent expressed, 
and are often indefinite with respect to person and number. AVe 
may sa)^ then, that although these pronouns are not truly inter- 
rogative pronouns in every sense, they are classed among them 
for convenience. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

The substantive clause is often introduced by an adverb that 
shows the clause to be subordinate, and is therefore called a Con- 
junctive Adverb. 

The following diagram will show what words may be used 
to introduce a substantive clause that is object of a transitive 
verb : — 

fthat he concealed the casket. 

who concealed the casket. 
j why he concealed the casket, 
how he concealed the casket, 
when he concealed the casket, 
where he concealed the casket. 



We know. 



'\, 



Each of these introductory words has a special meaning. That 
directs attention to the act of concealing, rvho to the person that 
performed the action, -why to his motive, hovj to the manner, when 

to the time, and where to the place. 

Ihls page should folloiu mge 766' 



Talks on Language.— No. 26. 172 

tory words used in the diagram? 

11. Analyze sentences i. 2. 10, and 14. 

13, Parse the verbs, prononns. and conjunctive adverbs in i and 2. 

LESSON i2q. 

1. Analyze sentences 15. 16, 17, and iS. 

2. Parse z'.'/ien, vjJiy, whei-e, and whose. 

3. Give the prog-ressive form of the verb speak in all the modes 
and tenses. 

LESSON 130. 

1. Analyze sentences 19, 20, 21. 

2. Parse his^ trying, and to et^ade, 

3. Parse who in 20, and vjhat in 21. 

4. Analyze 22 and 23. 

5. Parse when, ought to be, thankful, and xvhat. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE. -No. orj. 



CORRELATIVES. 

CoRREi.ATiVE words, as the name implies, are those that have 
a corresponding relation, or use ; so that each streng-thens, aids, 
or confirms the thought or relation expressed by the other. 

In some instances, correlative conjunctions join coordinate 
terms ; as, — 

1. Both Knox and Hungerford will be of the party. 

2. Neitliei' Sewall noi' Caxton could be induced to make the trial. 

In these examples, the correlative words — neither and nor, both 
and ai7d — are coordinate conjunctions. Both words, in each pair, 
are taken together to bring out one and the same relation. The 
first word cannot express the relation ; but it intimates the kind 
of relation to be expressed, and awakens an expectation of a word 
that will full}' indicate that relation. The second correlative 
meets the expectation raised by the first, and thus reciprocates the 
action of the first ; hence the term. Correlatives. 

It will be seen that the second correlative in either of the 
above examples is competent to express the relation without the 
aid of the first, but the idea of that relation would be less em- 
phatic ; for the first word, by awakening an expectation of the 
second, suggests the importance of the relation to be expressed, and 
thus makes it prominent. 

Subordinate Clauses used to complete a comparison are intro- 
duced bv correlative ^vords, as may be seen in the following ex- 
amples : — 

1. Joseph is as tall as his father. 

2. The ocean is greater than all the rivers that flow into it. 

3. The lion is so strong that no beast can withstand him. 

In the first example above, the comparison is one of equality ; 
in the second it is one of inequality; while in the third, the de- 
gree of the quality is shown, not by direct comparison, but by the 



Talks ox Laxguage. — Xo. 27. 174 

effect it produces. 

In the first example, the first as awakens an expectation of a 
comparison with reference to the quality denoted by the adjective 
/<?//. As soon as we come to this little ^vord, we know^ that 
the degree of tallness possessed b}- Joseph is to be shown by sav- 
ing- that it is equal to that possessed by some one else. Like the 
first of a pair of coordinate correlatives, it is a herald, proclaim- 
ing %vhatis to follow. The second as introduces an adverbial clause 
that brings out the comparison in full. 

In tlie second example, the syllable er, added to the adjective, 
indicates the comparison, and the conjunction f/ia?i introduces the 
clause that completes it. 

In the third example, the word so proclaims the nature of 
what is to follow, and ^/ia^ introduces the clause which meets the 
expectation raised by so. 

A comparison denoting similarity of action may be denoted 
bv as Vv'ithout any correlative word ; but the correspondence, or 
similarity, is made more emphatic by transposing the adverbial 
clause, and using a correlative \vord, as may be clearly seen in 
the following examples : — 

1. The heart of a benevolent man produces good works as the 
rose breathes sw^eetness from its own nature. 

2. As the rose breathes sw^eetness from its own nature, so the 
heart of the benevolent man produces good Avorks. 

Sometimes the word l/ie, before an adjective or an adverb in 
the comparative degree, is used as a correlative to denote corres- 
ponding increase or decrease, as shown below: — 

1. The better a man becomes, the better he desires to be. 

2. The longer a g'ood scholar lives the more he realizes his ig- 
norance. 

The^ Avhen xised as above, is commonly parsed as an adverb 
belonging to the word that follow-s it, but it must have something 
of the nature of a conjunction ; for the two the^s are certainly 
correlative to each other, and indicate a relation between the clauses 
that would not be expressed if these Avords were omitted. 



175 Talfsis on Language. — No. 27. 

The phrase m order is often used as the first correlative, Avhen 
Ave introduce a clause indicating- purpose ; as, — 

Ferdinand provoked a war with the Moors, in order that he 
might take their rich possessions from them. 

Punctuation. 

Correlative clauses are not usually separated by any mark of 
punctuation when the clause Avhich completes the comparison is 
introduced by as or tJian^ or when the clauses are closely joined 
by so — tJiat or sitcJi — that. But the clauses should be separated 
by the comma wheiiever the second correlative word is followed 
by the comma, or when the correlative words stand at the head 
of their respective clauses. 

Correlative clauses joined b^'^ other words than those mentioned 
above, are generally separated by a conmia. 

Associated Conjunctions. 

Such words as yet, still, notzvithstaudiug , nevertheless, and 
else, it re sometimes associated with a coordinate conjunction, either 
for emphasis, or to suggest the nature of the thought that is to 
follow. Although these words, vrhen used as just described, 
seem much like adverbs, it is probably better to parse them as 
Associated Conjunctions ; for they serve chiefly to show the re- 
lation of thoughts ratiier than to mod fy them. 

One of the models for parsing will illustrate the use of these 
associated conjunctions. 

Sometimes each of the coordinate correlatives that unite the 
parts of a compound sentence is accompanied by an associate con- 
junction ; as, — 

Not only did his father purchase his son's freedom, but he 
also gave him a good education. \ 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex. — Neither money nor self-sacrifice ca?i atone for a 
want of charity. 

Neither is a conjunction, coordinate ; correlative to nor, 



Talks on Language. —-No. 27. 176 

and used to g^ive emphasis to the relation expressed by that word. 
Nor is a conjunction, coordinate, correlative to iieiihe?' ^ it 
shows that moury and seJf-socrif.ce are equal in rank, and in the 
same office. It ait;o ^"ivv,s a negative meaning- to the second term 
of the couplet, just as neithe?' does to the first. 

Ex. — The peasant is as happy as the king-. 

As (the first one) is a conjunction, subordinate ; it is cor- 
relative to the second as^ for it gives notice of a comparison that 
will be completed by a clause introduced by that word. 

A.S (the second one) is a conjunction, subordinate ; it is cor- 
relative to the first as, and shows the relation of its clause to the 
adjective happy. 

ILiL.— It shines more brightly than the sun. 

More brightly is an adverb, added to the verb shines, to 
tell how. 

More is an adverb, added to brightly to give it the compar- 
ative form ; it gives notice that a comparison is to be introduced 
^v th reference to the kind of shining denoted by brightly. 

Tlian is a conjunction, subordinate; it is correlative to more, 
and shows its clause to be subordinate to the adverb more brightly. 

P2x. — Love is stronger than death. 

Stronger is an adjective, qualify- ing ; used with the copula 
to form the predicate. By its termination, it indicates a com- 
parison of two things with reference to the qualitj^ which it de- 
notes. It is correlative to than; for it awakens an expectation 
of a clause to be introduced by that word. 

Th.311 is a conjunction, subordinate ; it is correlative to 
stronger, and shows its clause to be subordinate to that word. 

Death is subject of is strong understood. 

Ex. — His prejudices are so strong that he can see no truth 

but in his own creed. 
So is a conjunction, subordmate ; it is correlative to that. 



177 Talks on Language. — No. 27. 

for it suggests a comparison that is to be completed by a clanse 
introduced by that word. 

Note. — So, in the example above, is frequently parsed as a 
conjunctive adverb ; but its modifying power is so slight and in- 
tangible that it seems hardh^ worthy of notice. 

The same remark applies to the first as, already parsed in a 
foregoing model, 

Ex. — Luther zvas taken prisoner by Jiis friends, in order that 
he might he saved from the cruelty of his enemies. 

In ord.6r is a conjunction, subordinate ; it is correlative to 
that, and seems to sliiihtly modify zvas taken. 

That is a conjunction, subordinate ; it is correlative to /// 
order, and shows the relation of its clause to ivas taken. 

Ex. — They searched the forest through and tJiroiigh, but vet 
no trace of child or dog zvas seen. 

But is ii conjunction, coordinate ; it shows that the clauses 
are equal in rank, and somewhat adverse in meaning. 

Yet is a conjunction, coordinate, associated with but to show 
that the thought which follows Avould not be expected from what 
goes before. 

Note. — In analyzing such a sentence as the above, we say 
that but yet joins the two clauses by showing that they are equal 
in rank. 

Ex. — Not only the zvise and the learned, but the common 
people also heard him gladly. 

Not only is a conjunction, coordinate ; it is correlative to 
but also, and awakens an expectation of the relation denoted by 
those words. 

But also is a conjunction, coordinate ; correlative to not only. 
But is the principal conjunction, and also is associated with it. 

Note. — This method of parsing these words is based upon 
the best of authority, and seems to be, on the whole, most consist- 
ent and profitable. 

The attempt to dispose of some of them as adverbs has not 
been very satisfactory, as it leads to a minute and puzzling anal - 
vsis which seems to be not only perplexing and doubtful, but 
practically^ useless. 



Tat.ks on Language. —No. 27. 17S 

General Examples. 

1. He was both g-enerous and considerate. 

2. Neither arg-ument nor persuasion could turn hiin from his 
purpose. 

3. Not only inclination but also a sense of duty prompted the 
step I took. 

4. Neither poverty nor misfortune could dampen his ardor. 

5. As you would that others should do to 5'ou, do ye even so 
to them. 

6. The more we indulge m the gav pleasures of the world, 
the more unwillingly do we take up the common duties of life. 

7. The broad stream flowed on as quietly a thousand years 
ago as it flows to day. 

S. What can be more beautiful than the stars on a clear night ? 
9. Strive to be as constant as the sun. 

10. His discourse was so long, that many of his congregation 
lost their interest in it. 

11. She can plav more readily than her brother, but her ex- 
pression is not so correct as his. 

12. He speaks more rapidly than any one ought to speak on 
such a subject. 

13. Then there escaped from her lips a cry of such terrible an- 
guish that the dying heard it, and started up from their pillows. 

14. We know it was best that he should go, but yet we mourn 
the loss of one whom we cannot recall, 

15. The lines of the old poets were stronger, if not more grace- 
ful, than those of modern times. 

16. As round the reaper falls the grain, so the dark host around 
him fell, so sank the foes of Israel. 

17. His statements were so clear that none could fail to under- 
stand them. 

18. Fair is that land as evening skies. 

19. We found trees as stout as the red-woods of California, 
though not as tall. 

20. Thou knowest the shadow could not be, were there no sun 
beyond the shade. 

LESSON rji. 
I, What are correlative Avords? 



179 Talks on Language. — No. 27. 

2. Give examples of correlatives that join coordinate terms. 

3. W^hat are such coordinate Avords called? 

4. Point out the correlative conjunctions in the illustrative ex- 
amples. 

5. For what purpose are both words of each pair employed? 

6. What is the first word unable to do? 

7. What purpose, then, does it serve? 

8. How does the second correlative reciprocate the action of 
the first? 

9. What is the second correlative competent to do? 

10. AVhat advantage, then, can come from using the two words 
instead of one? 

11. How does the first word give prominence and importance 
to the relation expressed ? 

12. Parse the conjunctions in sentence i of the General Ex- 
amples. 

13. Parse the conjunctions and the verb in sentence 2. 

14. Analyze sentence 3. 

15. Parse not only and but also. 

LESSON 132. 

1. Give sentences that contain subordinate clauses used to 
complete a comparison. 

2. How are these subordinate clauses introduced? 

3. Point out the conjunctions in the illustrative examples be* 
ginning w4th, "Joseph is as tall as his father." 

4. What correlatives are employed in making a comparison of 
equality ? 

5. AVhat ones are employed in making a comparison of ine- 
qun'itv. 

6. iiow is the degree of quality &hoWn in the third example? 

7. In a comparison of equality, Avhat does the first correlative 
word do? 

8. How is it like the first word in a pair of coordinate cor- 
relatives? 



Talks ox Laxguage. — "Xo. 27. iSo 

9. What is done bv the second subordinate correlative? 

10. How is the comparison introduced in the second sentence 
of the illustrative examples? 

11. What is done by each of the correlative words in the third 
example? 

12. How ma}- we sometimes introduce a comparison without the 
use of correlative words? 

13. In such cases, how may the correspondence or similarity be 
made more emphatic? 

14. Parse the verbs and conjunctions in sentence 9 of the Gen- 
eral Examples. 

15. Parse the verb and conjunctions in sentence S. 

16. Which of the General Examples contain a comparison of 
equalit}'^ ? 

17. Which of them contain a comparison of inequality? 

18. In which of them is the degree of quality or intensity of 
action shown by stating- its effect? 

19. Parse the conjunctions in sentence 10. 

LESSON 133. 

1. How is the word the sometimes used as a correlative? 

2. Give some examples of \'Our own composing or selecting. 

3. When used in this way, how is the commonly parsed? 

4. How may we prove that in such a use it has the nature of 
a conjunction ? 

5. Give an example in which /;/ o?'der is used as a correlative 
to introduce a clause indicating purpose. 

6. Parse i7i order and that in the illustrative examples. 

7. AVhat correlative clauses are not usually separated bv any 
mark of punctuation? 

S. When should such clauses be separated hj the comma? 
9. How should correlative clauses be punctuated, when joined 
b}- other words than those mentioned above? 

10. Parse the conjunctions in sentence 5. 

11. Parse the verb in the same sentence. 



iSi Talks on Language.— No. 27, 

12. Point out the correlatives in sentence 6. 

13. Why are the correlative clauses in this sentence separated 
by the comma? 

14. Analyze sentence 11, 

15. Explain the punctuation of 13. 

16. Why are not the correlative clauses in this sentence sepa- 
rated by the comma? 

17. Parse the correlatives in sentence 11. 

LESSON 134. 

1. For what purpose are such words as yet, still, else, etc., 
sometimes associated with coordinate conjunctions ? 

2. When emplo3'ed in this Avay, what do these v/ords resemble? 

3. Why does it seem better to parse them as associated con- 
junctions? 

4. Give an example in which coordinate conjunctions are ac- 
companied by associated conjunctions. 

5. Parse the conjunctions in sentence 3 of the General Exam- 
ples. 

6. Parse the conjunctions in sentence 4. 

7. Analyze sentence 14. 

S. Parse that, but yet, and zvhom. 

9. Parse the conjunctions in sentence 7. 

LESSON 135. 

1. Explain the punctuation of sentence 16. 

2. Parse the conjunctions in 15 and iS. 

3. Explain the punctuation of 19 and 20. 

4. Parse the conjunctions in 17 and 19. 

5. Parse the verbs in 20. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. 28. 



COPULATIVE VERBS. 

Thus far in our talks we have noticed three classes of verbs, — 
the copula, the transitive, and the intransitive. AVe have now 
to notice a fourth class, — one which combines the office of the 
copula with that of the transitive or the intransitive verb. The 
following examples illustrate its use as combined copula and in- 
transitive verb. 

1. The leaves turn bfozvii in autumn. 

2. The rose smells S7veet. 

In the first of these examples, the word hrozun denotes a qual- 
ity which the leaves acquire through the process, or act, of turn- 
ing. 

In the second sentence, the adjective sxveet denotes a quality'- of 
the rose, — a quality manifested b}' the rose in the act of sending 
forth its fragrance, and discovered b}^ the act of smelling. 

In both instances the quality is predicated ; for the meaning 
is not that a svjeet rose S7nells, nor that a hrozvii leaf turns. 

In both instances the verb predicates action, and does not rep - 
resent it as being received by anything. So far, it is like an in- 
transitive verb ; but in addition to this work, it shows that the 
quality denoted by the adjective that follows it, is predicated. 
In this respect it is like the copula, and it is this peculiarity that 
gives it the name, Copulative Verb. 

The copula is used with an adjective simply to denote that 
the quality or condition is predicated ; but the copulative verb used 
with an adjective in predicate does two things, — it predicates an 
act, being, or state, of its subject, and at the same time shows that 
another thought is predicated, — some qualitj^, action, state, or class, 
denoted by a word that follows it, and, with it, makes the predicate. 

The adjective, participle, or noun, used after a copulative verb, 
is as much a part of the predicate as it is when used after the 
copula itself. 



1S3 Talks on Language. — No. 28. 

However different in other respects, all copulative verbs are 
alike in this one thing-, — that they do the work of the copula, in 
addition to predicating the thought which they themselves denote. 

The copulative verb is often fo]lo^ved in predicate by a word 
that denotes an accompan3dng- quality, state, or act, as shown by 
the following- examples: — 

I. The dewy moon rose fair, 

3. The breeze blew mild ; the sky looked pure. 

3. Snow stars come jfloating downward. 

Sometimes a noun is used in predicate ^vith a copulative verb, 
as may be seen in some of the models, and in the General Ex- 
amples. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

Kx. — At once his eye grew -wild. 
Eye is the Subject, and grew 7vild is the Predicate ; it pred- 
icates an action, and also a condition which the subject reaches 
through that action. 

Wild denotes the condition, and grezv, like the copula, shows 
that the condition is predicated. 

Ex.— She appears healthier than she is. 

She is the Subject, and appears healthier is the Predicate ; it 
predicates an act, or state, and also a condition made manifest 
through that action. 

Appears denotes and predicates the action, and also shows 
that the condition denoted by the following word is predicated. 

Healthier denotes the condition, and by its termination mtro- 
duces a comparison with reference to that condition, 

TJiaji she is completes the comparison. 

Ex. — She moved a goddess. 
She is the Subject, and moved a goddess is the Predicate ; it 
predicates an action by which the subject manifests qualities that 
characterize a goddess, and show her to belong to that class. 



Talks on Language. — No. 2S. 1S4 

Ex. — He ttirned Repuhlican vjheii Lincoln zvas elected. 

He is the Subject, and Utrned Repuhlican is the Predicate ; it 
predicates action, and also that throug-h that action he became one 
of the class called Republicans. 

Ex, — H£ died a Cathvlic, 

He is the Subject, and died a Catholic is the Predicate ; it 
predicates an action, and also that at the time of that action he 
was one of the chiss called Catholics. 

Ex. — The child sat sobbing on the threshold. 

Child is the Subject, and sat sobbing is the Predicate ; it pred- 
icates posture, with accompanying action. 

Sobbing denotes action, but has in itself no power to predi- 
cate it. 

Sat denotes posture, and predicates that its subject is in that 
state ; it also acts the part of a copula in showing- that the act of 
sobbing is predicated. 

Ex. — The Jields lie desertecU 

Fields is the Subject, and lie desei'tedis the Predicate ; it pred- 
icates two conditions. Lie denotes a condition and predicates it ; 
it also acts the part of a copula in showing- that the state denoted 
h\ the participle deserted is predicated. 

MODELS FOR PARSING. 

Ex, — The leaves turn brovjn in autumn. 

Turn is a verb, reg., copulative ; indicative mode, present 
tense. It does not add s^ because its subject is not in the third 
person, singular number. 

Brown is an adjective, qualifying ; it is used with the cop- 
ulative verb t2ir7i to form the predicate. 

Ex. — She looked a queeiu 
Queen is a noun, com., 3rd, sing., fem., and used with the 
copulative verb looked to form a predicate ; and since it is in pred- 



iS5 Talks on Language, — No. 2S. 

icated apposition with the subject, it must have the same form 
that it would take if it were subject of the sentence. 

Ex. — TJiey shall come rejoicing. 

Shall come is a verb, irreg., copulative: indicative mode^ 
future tense. Verbs in this tense do not chang-e their form for 
the person and number of the subject. 

liejoicing is a participle, present active ; it denotes accom- 
panving- action, and is used with the copulative verb shall come 
to form the predicate. 

General Examples. 

1. The snow fell hissing on the brine. 

2. Down his broad shoulders his brown locks fell flowing. 

3. The Israelites grew stronger under their burdens. 

4. When I spoke of the cap and the letter which I had found, 
the stranger turned deadly pale. 

5. The colonel looks 3'ounger than when I last saw him. 

6. There many a fount wells fresh and sweet. 

7. Then from a neighboring thicket the mocking-bird, wildest 

of singers, 
Swinging aloft on a willow^-spr;iy that hung o'er the water. 
Shook from his little throat such floods of delirious music, 
That the whole air and the woods and the waves seemed 
silent to listen. 
S. Beatitude seemed written in his f;ice. 

9. The sullen waters la}- dark and motionless around our help- 
less ])ark. 

10. The hollow beatmg of his foot- steps seems a sacrilegious 
sound. 

11. I feel stronger than w^hen my journey began. 

12. The herd's white bones lie mixed wnth human mold. 

13. Blithely the blue waters laved their golden margins, — so 
blithely and beautiful it all w^as that I forgot that the "waste 
howling wilderness " stretched almost infinitely in all directions. 

14. There v.^ere tall trees on every hand ; great beds of ferns, 
their fronds matted together, began to aj)pear ; impenetrable jun- 



i ALKS OX I^AXGUAGE. — Xo. 2S. iS-'i 

^les of the laurel stretched all along the deep ravines. 

15. No^v and then a flash of crimson rejoiced the sisrht ; from 
far, gleamed the red cones of the cucumber tree : the trumpet- 
flower blossomed in the darkling- places ; he marked the lustre of 
the partridge -berry by the wayside. 

16. I had thought that in man}- lands I had seen every effect 
that sun and atmosphere could produce, and that the sunset over the 
Libvan Desert, seen from the mosque of ]Mahomet Ali, had ex- 
hausted the last possibilities of novelty : but nature has no end 
■of surprises, and this sunset by the Gulf of Suez dif£eiv^!^-^¥Oi»-all 
others^ 4^/-i • i' '>i+ .' brC*' J 

17. Up and up, towered the massive boles, with a canopy of 
leaves so dense that all the firmament was effaced, and the sun- 
shine trickling through had a w-hite, tempered glister like the 
moonbeams. 

iS. These swarth}? Bedoween. with their untamed walk and 
expression, their wild look of freedom, their high foreheads and 
liawk-like noses, are the children of "our father Abraham ;" and 
Sarah's entreaty to him, ''Cast out the bondwoman and her son,'' 
might have been spoken in yonder tent. 

LESSOR'' 13b. 

1. Ho\v many classes of verbs have we noticed in the preced- 
ing lessons: 

2. What are they? 

3. Define each. 

4. What is the distinctive feature of the new class that we 
"now have to introduce? 

5. Explain the peculiarities of the predicate in the first of the 
illustrative examples. 

6. Explain the predicate in the second example, 

7. How may it be shown that the quality is predicated in each 
of these sentences? 

S. How does each of these verbs resemble an intransitive verb ? 
9. In what respect is each like the copula? 

10. To what name does this peculiarity give rise? 

11. How does the copulative verb differ from the copula? 



iS7 Talks on Language. — No. 2S. 

12. What may l)e said of the adjective, participle, or noun thoit 
follows a copulative verb? 

13. In Avhat one particular are all copulative verbs alike ? 

14. Analyze sentences 3 and 4 of the General Examples. 

15. Parse both words of the predicate in each. 

16. Analyze sentence 5. 

17. Parse looks, yoiinger^ ikaft, and -uhen, 

LESSON ijy. 

1. Explain the use of each word of the predicate in the exam- 
ple, '*The dewy moon rose fair." 

2. Explain the predicate in the next example, 

3. Parse come and floating in the third example. 

4. Give an example in which a noun is used in predicate with 
a copulative verb. 

5. Anal3'ze sentences i and 2 of the General Examples. 

6. Parse both words in each predicate, 

7. Analyze sentence 7. 
S, Parse such and that. 

LESSON 138. 

1. Analyze sentence 6, and parse xuell<, fresh, and svjeet. 

2. Parse see^ned and written in sentence 8. 

3. Parse lay and dark in sentence 9. 

4. Parse seems and sound in sentence 10, 

5. Anah'^ze sentence 16, 

6. Explain the punctuation of 14 and 15, 

LESSON 13Q. 

1. Analyze sentence 13, and parse the conjunctions. 

2. Parse stronger, than, and when, in sentence 11, 

3. Explain the predicate of sentence 12, 

4. Analyze sentence 17, and parse the correlative words, 

5. Explain the punctuation of 18. 

LESSON 140. 
1. Write out the complete conjugation of the verb To Teach. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE.— No. ag. 



THE DOUBLE OBJECT. 

By the double object we do not mean a couplet of objects ; 
for the second part of the double object is not coordinate with the 
first part, but is in some way dependent upon it. The double 
object always follows a copulative verb which not only predicates 
something of its subject, but also predicates something of its object, 
or rather, something of the subject of an abridged clause, which 
abridged clause, taken as a whole, is the complete object of the 
copulative verb that precedes it. 

B\^ an abridged clause we mean a clause whose power of pred- 
ication has been in some way destro^-^ed. When the predicate 
of the clause ^vhich \ve ^vish to abridge consists of a copula and 
another word, we may take away its power of predication by 
dropping the copula altogether, or by changing the copula to a 
participle or an infinitive. 

The double object arises from abridging a substantive clause 
that is object of a transitive verb, as may be seen from the follo\v* 
ing examples : — 

1. ^Ve supposed that the man vjas honest=We supposed the 
VI a 71 to he honest. 

2. Some thought that the fellov! vjas a j'^2:y=Some thought the 
fellovj a Jevj. 

3. Do you believe that I am sincere /=Do you beHeve me 
sincere ? 

4. The colonel ordered that his men should retreat^The colonel 
ordered his men to retreat. 

In the first of these examples, the substantive clause is abridged 
by changing the copula to the infinitive, thus taking awa}'^ its power 
of predication. In the first form of the sentence, the stibstantive 
clause is object of the verb supposed^ which is not, in this case, 
copulative. The substantive clause predicates a quality of the 
man ; honest denotes the quality, and vjas shows that it is pred- 
icated. The sentence in its second form has the same meaning 



1S9 Talks on Language. — No. 29. 

as in its first. The same action is predicated of the speaker and 
those associated ^vith him, and the same quaUty is predicated of 
the man ; but the objective clause has lost its predicate, and de- 
pends upon the copulative verb supposed, to predicate the quality 
denoted by the adjective honest. 

The second example is similar to the first, with the exception 
that the noun, instead of an adjective, is used with the copula to 
form the predicate of the substantive clause ; and this substan- 
tive clause is abridg-ed by dropping- the copula, instead of chang- 
ing- it to an infinitive. This leaves a double object consisting of 
two nouns, the second noun being in predicated apposition with 
the first. 

In the third example, the substantive clause is abridged in the 
same way as in the second. This leaves a double object con- 
sisting- of the pronoun me as subject, and the adjective sincei'e 
v/hich denotes a predicated qualit3^ of the person represented by me. 

In the fourtii example the substantive clause is abridged by 
changing its verb from the potential mode to the infinitive, thus 
leaving a double object consisting of the infinitive to retreat and 
its subject men. 

The subject of an abridged clause is put in the objective form 
whenever the clause is object of the transitive verb, or of the prep- 
osition, as in the third example above. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Ex. — Do you believe me sincere. 

Ton is the Subject. 

Do believe me sincere is the Predicate ; it predicates the action, 
and the fact to which that action gives credence. 

Believe denotes the action, and me sijicere denotes the fact 
which is to be believed. 

J[[e sincere is an abridged clause, and means the same as that 
I am sincere. Me is the subject of the abridged clause, and 
sincere is the changed j)redicate ; it denotes a quality of the per- 
son alluded to by me j vi^hile believe, like the cf^pula, sho-ws that 
the quality denoted by sincere is predicated. 



Talks on Language. — Xo. 29. 190 

Do believe is a verb, reg., copulative, active voice ; in- 
dicative mode, present tense, emphatic form. Do is used instead 
of does because the subject is not in the third person, singular 
number. 

Me is a pronoun, personal, ist person, sing, numb., does not 
distinguish sex ; it is the subject of an abridged clause ^vhich is 
the object of the verb believe^ and for this reason it has the objec- 
tive form. 

Sincere is an adjective, qualifying, used with me to complete 
an abridged clause. 

Ex. — We thought him a vebeL 

We is the Subject. 

Thought him a rebel is the Predicate ; it predicates an action 
and the conclusion reached by that action. 

Thought denotes the action, and him a rebel the conchision. 

Him a rebel is an abridged clause, meaning the same as that 
he xvas a rebel. 

Him is the subject of the abridged clause, rebel names one of 
the class to which this person is supposed to belong, and thought^ 
like a copula, shows that the fact of his belonging to that class 
is predicated. 

Rebel is a noun, 3rd, sing., masc; it is in predicated ap- 
])osition with him, and must therefore take the form that it would 
take if used in place of that noun. 

Ex. — Affliction made him a better man. 

Affliction is the Subject. 

Made him a better man is the Predicate ; it predicates an 
iiction and its effect. 

Made denotes the action, and him a better man the effect. 

Him a better ma?i is an abridged clause meaning the same as 
that he should beco^ne a better man^ but the complete form is never 
used after the verb make. 

Hint is the subject of the abridged clause, man names one of 
the class to which this person came to belong, and made^ like a 



igi Talks on Language. — No. 29. 

copula shows that the fact of his belonging to that class is pred- 
icated. 

Ex. — T^e people elected him presidejit. 

People is the Subject. 

Elected him president is the Predicate ; it predicates an action 
and the effect produced upon the object that receives the action. 

Elected denotes the action, him alludes to the person that re- 
ceives the action, president names the office which he acquires 
through the act of being elected, and elected^ like a copula, shows 
that the fact of his acquiring that office is predicated. 

Ex. — Fingal bade his sails to rise. 

Fiiigal is the Subject. 

Sails to rise is the Predicate ; it predicates action, and the 
contemplated effect of that action. 

Bade denotes the action, and sails to rise, the anticipated re- 
sult of that action. 

Sails is the subject of the abridged clause ; to rise is the 
infinitive of the predicate ; it names the action which the sails 
are bid to perform. 

To rise is a verb, irreg., intr. ; infin. m., pres. tense; it 
names an action, and thus becomes a verbal noun ; as a noun it 
completes an abridged proposition which is the object of the verb 
hade, and must therefore take the same form that it would take if 
it were itself object of the verb. 

COPULATIVE VERBS IN THE PAS- 
SIVE VOICE. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Ex. — He was made cautious by his failure. 

He is the Subject. 

Was made cautious is the Predicate ; it predicates an action 
received by the subject, and also a condition into which the subject 
is brought by that action. 

Was made denotes the action, and cautious denotes the con- 



Ta-lks on Language. — No. 29. 192 

•aition into which the subject is brought by receiving that action. 

W^3,S niad€ is a verb, irreg,, copulative, passive voice ; indie. 
«node, past tense, Wt?.? is used instead of were because the sub- 
ject is in the third person, sing, number, 

G ailtiOllS is an adjective, qualifying ; used with the copu- 
lative verb was tnade to form the predicate. 

Ex, — y<ioksou Tv^as elected ^r-esideni^ 

Jacksvji is the Subject. 

Was elected president is the Predicate ; it predicates action 
received by the subject, and also that by this action the subject 
became one of the class called presidents. 

Was elected denotes the action, and predicates it. 

President names one of the class of which he became a member, 
and was elected, like a copula, shows that the fact of his becoming 
a member of that class is predicated, 

W^aS elected, is a verb, reg,, copulative, passive voice ; 
indie, m,, past tense. Was is used instead of -were because its 
subject is in the 3rd per,, sing. nun\ber. 

President is a noun, com., 3rd, sing., masc. ; used with the 
copulative verb was elected to form the predicate. It is in pred- 
icated apposition with the subject, and must therefore be put in 
the same form that it would take if it were itself the subject. 
Ex. — The soldiers were commanded to JiJ'e, 

Soldiers is the Subject. 

Were coimnanded to Jire is the Predicate ; it predicates two 
actions. The first is received by the subject, and the second is 
performed by it. The action performed is anticipated as the 
result of the action received. 

Note. — It is not uncommon to find such words as to be, as, 
or as being, between the subject of an abridged clause and the 
adjective or noun that follows it. These words do not appear 
to affect the construction at all, and would better be regarded as 



193 Talks on Language.— No. 30. 

mere connectives, used to give prominence to the relation of tfie' 
parts between which they occur. 

To fire is a verb, reg., intran., infinitive mode, present 
tense ; it is here used to name an action, and thus becomes a 
verbal noun. As a noun, it is third, sing., neuter,, and used with 
the copulative verb to form the predicate. 

General Examples, 

1. The just man^s memory grows greener with years, 

2. Let the light stream on his deeds of love. 

3. A solitary form was seen to trace with stealthy pace the 
wold. 

4. Not a few called him stingy. 

5. His sad misfortvme has made him fearful of taking risks, 

6. He called the flowers,, so blue and golden, stars that in. 
earth's firmament do shine, 

7. Thou raakest the sad heart gay. 
S. His passions drove him wild. 

9. The flaraelets gleamed and flickered to and frOy and seemed 
a bonfire lighted in the road. 

10. The small hand that trembled 
When last in my own, 
Lies imtient and folded. 
And colder than stone. 

11. Yester morn I saw the lake completely hidden by mist, 

12. He is thought competent to perform whatever he is willing 
to undertake, 

13. They call that brilliant flower the Painted Cup, 
1-4. He Was everywhere known as the king's favorite, 

15. Who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come: 

16. They are called the Chimneys Three, 

17. I heard the trailin'j;- garments of the Night 
Sweep through her marble halls! 

iS. The French are regarded as the most polite people in the 
world. 

19. Allow me to present my view of the question, 

20. He has been supposed to be richer than he is. 



Talks on Laxgcage. — No. 30. iq4 

21. He told me to come early in the morning- if I wanted to 
become the bearer of his dispatches, 

22. The villain was supposed to be dead, but I saw him open 
aiis eyes when he thought all faces were turned from him. 

23. The moon rose clear and cold. 

24. The Romans taught their sons to endure hardships. 

25. We were ordered to evacuate the works at midnight. 

26. The place looked desolate and uncomfortable. 

27. Ye think the rustic cackle of your burgh the murmur of the 
world. 

2S. Monstrous iv}^- stems claspt the gray walls with hair}' -fibred 
arms, and sucked the joining of the stones, and looked a knot be- 
neath of snakes, aloft, a grove, 

LBSSOA^ i^i, 

1. How does the double object differ from a couplet of objects ? 

2. AVhat kind of verbs does the double object always follow? 

3. What is the peculiarity of this verb ? 

4. What constitutes the complete object of such a. verb? 

5. What do we mean by an abridged clause ? 

6. How ma}^ we destro}'- the power of predication in a clause ? 

7. The double object arises from abridging what kind of clause? 
S. In the illustrative examples how is the substantive clause 

abridged in the first sentence? 

9. Explain the peculiarities of the verb and its object in both 
forms of this sentence. 

10. Show- how the second sentence differs from the first with 
respect- to the verb and its object. 

11. What peculiarity has the third sentence? 

12. How is the substantive clause abridg^ed in the fourth sen- 
tence ? 

13. What kind of double object is thus formed? 

14. What form must be given to the subject of an abridged 
clause which is object of a transitive verb or a preposition? 

LESSON 142. 
1, AxAi vzE sentences i and 4 of the General Examples. 



195" Talks gn Laistguage. — No. 2^%. 

2. Parse grcfws^ greener, Jnm^ and stingy .r 

3. Analyze sentence 5^. 

4. Parse has made, hint, fearful, and takhig, 
$. Analyze sentences 6 and 7, 

6^ Parse flower's, stars, Hearty and ^^T". 
7,- Analyze sentences 8 and 9. 
S^ Parse tthn^ vjtldf seemed^ and bonfire. 
LESSON 143, 

1. AisTalYze sentences lO and 11, 

2. Parse lies, patient, saw,, take^ and hidden^ 

3. Analyze 13^ 14^ and 16. 

4. ^ciYse Jtower, Painted Cup, rvas knazuji, cind faz'orite^ 

5. Analj'ze i5> and 20. 

6. Parse ai-e regarded, people, richer, and than. 

7. Analyze sentence 26, 

LESSON 144. 

1. Analyze sentences i^ and 19. 

2. Parse hath 7varned, ycJtt, to flee, nte, and to present, 

3. Anal5'ze sentences 17 and 21, 

4. Parse garitiejits, sweep, to come, and /r? become. 
t). Anal^'ze 23, 24 y and 2^. 

6. Parse .s'<7«,9, to endure, vjere ordered, and to evacuate, 

LESSON 143, 

i. Analyze sentences 2 and 3, 

2. Parse let^ tight, stream^ was seen, and to trace. 

3. Analyze sentence 12. 

4. Parse is thought, competent, to perform, vjhatever, and to 
undertake, 

5. Analyze sentence 22. 

6. Parse vjas supposed and ^c> ^^ dead. 

7. Analyze 27 and 2S. 

8. Parse looked, knot, and grove. 



TALKS ON LANGUAGE, -No. 30. 



EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIONS. 

Some sentences not onh^ predicate thought, but at the same 
time show that emotion is awakened by that thoug-ht. In spoken 
lang"uag-e, the emotion is shown chiefly b^^ the modulations of the 
voice ; but in written language it has to be shown by a class of 
words used especially for that purpose, by the arrangement of the 
words of the sentence, or by the exclamation point at the close. 

The interjections have already been noticed ; but adjectives 
and adverbs are often employed in such a way as to give intensity 
\o certain features of a thought, and thus suggest the excitement 
of feeling which that peculiarity^ of the thought ^vould be likely 
to awaken. In the first of the examples below, the emotional 
nature of the thought is shown wholly by the arrangement of the 
words, and by the point at the close of the sentence ; in the second, 
it is shown by the adjective zvhat ; and in the third and fourth, 
by the adverb hovj. 

If we should transpose the flrst sentence, no emotion would 
be indicated ; and the words hovj and vjhat, in the sentences that 
follow, imply that there is something so unusual and striking in 
the nature, qualit^^, or action, of the thing referred to, that it stirs 
the feelings of the writer. 

1. Great is Diana, the goddess of the Ephesians! 

2. ^Vhat a tale of terror their turbulenc}- tells! 

3. How pale is the face of the innocent sufferer! 

4. How it tolls for the souls of the sailors on the sea! 

The imperative sentence seldom has its subject expressed, and 
is often cut down to a single word ; as, "Rise," "Listen," etc. 
This closely abbreviated clause sometimes becomes emotional, and 
it is then a question whether its single word should be parsed 
as an interjection, or as a verb m the imperative mode. It is 
more common to parse it as an interjection, but more logical to 
parse It as a verb ; for the single word is as much an elliptical 
(196) 



197 Talks on Language. — No, 30. 

clause when it becomes emotional as it is in the examples g'iven 
above. 

Most frequently emotion is indicated by a single word, an in- 
terjection ; and the clause that follows, states the cause of the 
emotion; as, "Alas! those days will never come again!" 

In some instances the clause that tells what awakens the 
emotion consists of a mere fragment; as, "Alas! the folly of 
human greatness!" In order to parse the words in such a group, 
it is necessary to supply the ellipsis. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Ex. — V//iat blessings vje enjoy ! 

This sentence expresses a thought, and shows that emotion is 
awakened by that thought. Such a sentence is called exclamatory, 
and should be followed by an exclamation point. 

We is the subject, enjoy is the predicate, and blessings names 
the things that we enjo^^ 

What seems to indicate that the blessings here meant are either 
unusually great or remarkably abundant. It takes the first place 
in the sentence to show that this peculiarity of the blessing is 
what excites the emotion. 

"Wliat is an adjective, added to the noun blessmgs to show 
that the blessings are either unusually great or very abundant. 

Ex. — How regally the moon looks down I 

This sentence predicates a thought, and shows that emotion 
is excited by that thought. Such a sentence is called exclamatory, 
and should be followed by an exclamation point. 

The subject is moon, the predicate is looks down / tells Avhich 
way it looks, and regally tells how. 

How seems to indicate that this appearance of the moon is so 
striking as to cause emotion. 

How is an adverb, added to the adverb regally to intensify 
its meaning, and thereby indicate emotion. 

Ex. — Hark! the storm is approaching. 

Hark is a verb, reg., intr. ; imperative m., pres. t. Verbs 
in this mode do not change their form for the person and number 
of their subject. This verb represents an imperative clause that 



Talks on Language. — No. 30. iq8 

indicates sudden emotion, and is therefore followed by an excla- 
mation point. 

Grammatical Errors. 
The most common errors occur : — 

1. In forming the plural of nouns. 

2. In the use of capital letters. 

3. In adding- the possessive sign. 

4. In using that form of the pronoun that agrees with the 
person and number of its antecedent. 

5. In taking that form of the pronoun that agrees with its 
use in the sentence. 

6. In using the pronoun which in place of who or that, and 
vice versa. 

7. In using that form of the verb that agrees with the 
person and number of its subject. 

8. In using that mode of the verb which is suited to the 
thought to be expressed. 

9. In forming the tenses properl}'. 

10. In using the verbs Sit, Set, Lie, and Lay in their proper 
place, 

IT. In taking the right forn; of an adjective or an ad\erb 
for denoting a comparison. 

12. In choosing the conjunction or prepos'tion that will in- 
dicate the true relation of the thoughts. 

13. In avoiding the use of two negative words when only 
one is needed. 

14. In so arranging nouns and personal pronouns as to give 
due honor to elders and superiors. 

Models for Correcting Errors. 
Ex. — Every one should attend to their ovju affairs. 

Their should be his; for its antecedent is in the third person, 
singular number. 

Note. — It is true that the above example does not have re- 
ference to a male any more than it does to a female, and so we 
would like to use a pronoun that does not distinguish sex ; but 
in our language we have no such pronoun in the singular number, 
and for this reason we have to use the masculine gender of the 
third person, singular number. 



199 Talks on Language. — No. 30. 

Ex. — / knevj it zvas them by tJieh' movements. 

Them should be they / for it is used with the copula to make 
a predicate and should therefore be put in the subjective form. 

JEx. — Father rented the garden to Fred and I. 
I should be me ; for it is used after a preposition, as the chief 
element of a phrase, and should therefore be put in the objective 
form, 

Ex. — / knevj it to be he by his motions. 
He should be him / for it is in predicated apposition with it, 
and should therefore have the same form that it would take if it 
were used in place of that word. 

Ex. — / had ran a mile and zvas very weary. 
Ran should be run ,' for the participle, and not the past tense 
of the verb, must be iTsed for the basis of all the perfect tenses. 

Ex. — We laid quite still, but the creature scented us and run azvay. 
Laid should be lay ; for we need an intransitive verb in this 
sentence. Run should be ran ^ for although run is both the 
1^ resent tense and the past participle, it can never be used as the 
p.Lst tense. 

Ex. — We had set on that seat many times before. 
Set should be sat,' for we need the past participle of an in- 
transitive verb. 

General Examples. 

1. Alas! with what sadness of heart would he return to tha- 
desolate home I 

2. How the wind howls o'er the sea and shrieks throug-h the 
rigg-ing! 

3. "Why art thou cast down, O my soul? 

4. Ah! how gracefully that bark dances upon the billows. 

5. O that Ishmael might live before thee! 

6. Unto thee, O God, do we give thanks. 

7. Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, thou that leadest Joseph 
like a flock ; thou that d^vellest between the cherubims, shine forth. 

8. Hark! what noise is that? 



Talks ox Language. — Xo. 30. 200 

9. Lol in the middle of the wood, the folded leaf is woo'd 
from out the bud. 

10. O the dreary, dreary moorland! O the barren, barren shore! 

11. O eyes long laid in happ}' sleep! O happy sleep thatiig^ly 
lied! -^/^ ^'^l4^. 

12. When a firm or an individual has learned ho"\v to manag-e 
all these parts of their business, the result is a g-reat firm. 

13. The old chief discovered the colonel and I, just as we were 
congratulating ourselves on having made our escape. 

14. He had went nearly through the forest, Avhen he was sur- 
prised and captured. 

15. AVe supposed it was them, but had no direct evidence. 

16. We kne"\v it to be the renegade, and they ^vho had deserted 
with him. 

17. Pa^^ to William Bradbury, or order, the sum of Forty- Seven 
Dollars, out of any monies now in your hands, and belonging to 
the school funds. 

iS. The Colonel, the Captain, and two Lieutenants, embarked 
on the tug red Rover for a vovag-e up the big black River. 
iQ. D:d you attend i')rofessor Richards' lecture: 

20. The men which make our laws should be men of principle. 

21. The giant oak, whose sturdy trunk and gnarled branches, 
has withstood the shock of a thousand storms, require a century 
for their growth. 

23. He had went along that same road man}- a time with mv 
uncle and L 

23. He sat his jug down by a tree, and laid down upon the grass. 

24. He was taller than any man in his regiment. 

25. Which is oldest, Philip or his sister? 

26. I waited on him everv dav for a week, and could get no 
interview ; for every day thev told me he was not to home. 

27. They would give me no money nor no food. 
2S. They gave me and him a front seat. 

29. The dog and I and father were the only ones who were 
left in the boat. 

30. Any member of the company who have not registered their 
name will do so before leaving. 



2or Talks on Language. — No. ^o. 

31. Neither Jane or Ellen have finished their work. 

32. Each child looks forward to the day when they expect to 
receive presents from Santa Claus. 

33. If I was in your place, I should wish I was at home. 

L^SSOJV 146. 

1. In addition to predicating thought, what do some sentences 
show ? 

2. In spoken language how is emotion chiefly shown? 

3. Ho\v does emotion have to be shown in written language? 

4. What emotional words have already been noticed? 

5. In what peculiar way do adjectives and adverbs often indicate 
emotion ? 

6. In the first sentence of the illustrative examples, how is the 
emotional nature of the thought indicated? 

7. How is it shown in the second? 

8. How in the third and fourth ? 

Q. What would be the effect of transposing the words of the 
first sentence? 

10. What is implied by the words /loza and what, in sentences 
2 to 4? 

11. To what extent is the imperative sentence sometimes ab- 
breviated ? 

12. What question arises, when such a closely abbreviated clause 
becomes emotional? 

13. Wh^t is the more common method of parsing such a word ? 

14. AVhat seems to be the more logical method ? 

15. Ho^v is emotion most frequently indicated? 

16. What is brought out by the clause that follows such a 
word ? 

17. Of what does such a clause sometimes consist? 

18. What is necessary in order to parse the words in such a 
group ? 

LESSON I4T , 

I. Point out the instances in which grammatical errors most 
commonly occur. 



Talks on Language. — No. 30. 202 

3. Illiistriite these ei-rors by examples. 
LESSON 148, 

1. Analyze sentences i to 4. 

2. Parse alas^ vjhai, kovj, zvhy, O, and ah. 

3. Analyze sentences 5, 7, and S, 

4. Parse hark, vjhat, and h. 

5. Analyze sentence 11. 

6. Parse O, jKOO'land, and shore, in senl^ince :o. 

LESSON 1 4Q. 

I. Point out and correct, according to model, the errors in 
examples 12 to 22, 

LESSON 150. 

I. Point out and correct the errors in the remaining sentence'^ 
of the General Examples. 



SUPPLEMENT. 



EXAMPLES FOR LESSON 32. 

QUESTION 4f.— 'Forsake, reach, stand, descend, approach^ 
defends, forsakes, stands, defend, approaches, watches, reaches^ 
make, descends, write, tells, watch, fall, falls, come, comes. 

QUESTION ^'.~^2i\h.2ir\, mountains, city, sea, queens, soldier^ 
landscape, castles, oceans-, we, they, she, I^ you, he, sky^ books,, 
fountains, ostrich, piano, pictures, 

REQUIREMENT b. 

1. The contains many people. 

2. The falls heavily on the roof, 

3. The priest-like — reads the sacred pag'e, 

4. Softly now the ■ ■ fades upon my sight away, 

5. How reg-ally the — look down. 

6. The summer lie pitched like tents, 

7. And yet once more the — — — sing-, 
S. And the — , dark and lonel*-, 

oVIove throug-h all their depths pf darkness. 
9. The gray-haired = — kneels beside the bier. 

REQUIREMENT 7. 
I, The wild winds roars. 2. The tempest rage. 3. Across the 
deck the huge Avaves dashes, 4. "The lion eat flesh," says I. 5. A 
robe of leaves cover all the trees. 6. A dish of nuts stand on the table, 

EXAMPLES FOR LESSON ZZ- 

RE^ UIREMENT 5. 
I. They was smitten with blindness. 2. Adown the glen, rides 
armed men. 3, Deep, fiery clouds o'er-spread the sky. 4. Dread 
stillness reign in air. 5. They keeps time to the music. 6. ^Ve was 
invited. 7. The mountain tower above the sky. S. The tickets was 
all taken before noon. 9. Them is pret'y. 10. I were sadly disap- 
jiointed. 11. Them boys write letters in school. 13. Flowers is 
j^rettiest in the morning. 13. The books was found in the thief's 
trunk. 14. A load of boys are passing. 15. A vase of flowers were 
presented to the teacher. 16. A crown of thorns was placed ui)on 
his brow. 17. A confusion of sounds strike on my ear. 
(203) 



